upporting The Injured Athlete: Coaches’ Perspectives On Providing Social Support upporting The Injured Athlete: Coaches’ Perspectives On Providing Social Support Supporting The Injured Athlete: Coaches’ Perspectives On Providing Social Support Stefanee Opal Maurice West Virginia University, stmaurice@mail.wvu.edu Follow this and additional works at: https://researchrepository.wvu.edu/etd Part of the Sports Studies Commons Recommended Citation Maurice, Stefanee Opal, "Supporting The Injured Athlete: Coaches’ Perspectives On Providing Social Support" (2019). Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports. 4017. https://researchrepository.wvu.edu/etd/4017 This Dissertation is protected by copyright and/or related rights. It has been brought to you by the The Research Repository @ WVU with permission from the rights-holder(s). You are free to use this Dissertation in any way that is permitted by the copyright and related rights legislation that applies to your use. For other uses you must obtain permission from the rights-holder(s) directly, unless additional rights are indicated by a Creative Commons license in the record and/ or on the work itself. This Dissertation has been accepted for inclusion in WVU Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports collection by an authorized administrator of The Research Repository @ WVU. For more information, please contact researchrepository@mail.wvu.edu. Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports 2019 SUPPORTING THE INJURED ATHLETE: COACHES’ PERSPECTIVES ON PROVIDING SOCIAL SUPPORT Stefanee Opal Maurice Follow this and additional works at: https://researchrepository.wvu.edu/etd Part of the Sports Studies Commons SUPPORTING THE INJURED ATHLETE: COACHES’ PERSPECTIVES ON PROVIDING SOCIAL SUPPORT Stefanee Maurice Dissertation submitted to the College of Physical Activities and Sport Sciences at West Virginia University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Sport and Exercise Psychology Dana K. Voelker, Ph.D., Chair Clayton R. Kuklick, Ph.D. Damien Clement, Ph.D. Jack C. Watson, II, Ph.D. Department of Sport Sciences Morgantown, WV 2019 Keywords: rehabilitation, coach-athlete relationship, sport injury, coaching Copyright 2019 Stefanee Maurice Abstract SUPPORTING THE INJURED ATHLETE: COACHES’ PERSPECTIVES ON PROVIDING SOCIAL SUPPORT by Stefanee Maurice Injury is an inevitable facet of sport participation, and injured athletes require support from coaches. However, research on injured athletes highlights a lack of support from coaches. Building on the conceptual model proposed by Maurice et al., this study uses the International Sport Coaching Framework (ISCF) to examine ways contextual coaching knowledge is used to support athletes throughout rehabilitation. Previous research has focused on the knowledge types but has neither addressed the integration of the knowledges in a single study nor examined them in an injury context. A generic qualitative approach was used to examine 13 NCAA DI coaches’ perception of their role during rehabilitation, their use of ISCF knowledge types, and perceived barriers when supporting injured athletes. Analyzed using deductive coding strategies, coaches reported integrating the knowledge types when supporting their injured athletes. Coaches’ perceived roles and barriers were also addressed by the knowledge types. Coaches emphasized their role during the rehabilitation process was to continue communicating with their athletes and know their players well enough to push them to return to play without furthering their athletes’ injuries. Barriers perceived by coaches in their efforts to provide support came from rules developed by universities and NCAA limiting ways coaches could offer support. Coaches cited injured athletes as barriers, explaining that athletes are not always honest with coaches about injury severity and afraid to admit they are injured. Results of this study can be used to help coaches identify effective uses of coaching knowledge to improve injured athletes’ rehabilitation experiences. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS iii The completion of this dissertation would not have been possible without the numerous sources of social support I found. First, I would like to thank my chair, Dr. Dana Voelker, for her continuous support and guidance throughout this process. Dr. Voelker has been dedicated to helping me get to the finish line and I am so appreciative of all she has done to get me here. I would also like to thank my committee members Drs. Kuklick, Watson, and Clement for their time and expertise that has helped me get to this point. The staff within the college have been instrumental sources of both informational and emotional support throughout the entire process. I would like to express my gratitude to faculty in the counseling department and in the department of sport sciences, and my supervisors at the Carruth Center for supporting over the years and through this project. I would also like to acknowledge the funding support of the NCAA Graduate Student Research Grant and the coaches who took part in this study. To my students and colleagues at Cal Poly, thank you for all you have done to support me and my research. I am so lucky to have found such a supportive home in academia. Through the many ups and downs of completing this project, I was fortunate to have the unwavering support of friends like Megan Byrd, Carra Johnson, Meghan Halbrook, Tammy Sheehy, Ashley Samson, and so many others. I would also like to thank my family for their continuous support of my educational pursuits and always believing in me. iv Table of Contents Abstract ............................................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................ iii Table of Contents ............................................................................................................... iv List of Figures .................................................................................................................... vi List of Tables ..................................................................................................................... vii Introduction ..........................................................................................................................1 International Sport Coaching Framework ..........................................................................3 Coaches’ Provision of Social Support................................................................................4 Integrating Coaching Knowledge into Injury Rehabilitation .............................................7 Gaps, Limitations, and Study Purpose ...............................................................................8 Methods ................................................................................................................................9 Researcher Positionality ....................................................................................................9 Study Design ................................................................................................................... 10 Participants ...................................................................................................................... 11 Procedures ....................................................................................................................... 12 Data Analysis .................................................................................................................. 15 Results ................................................................................................................................ 17 Professional Knowledge .................................................................................................. 17 Professional Knowledge of Resources ........................................................................ 18 Professional Knowledge of Injury Prevention ............................................................. 20 Professional Knowledge on Phases of Injury Rehabilitation ....................................... 21 Professional Knowledge on Injured Athletes’ Sustained Involvement ........................ 22 Professional Knowledge on Athlete Welfare............................................................... 23 Interpersonal Knowledge ................................................................................................. 26 Interpersonal Knowledge on Communicating with Injured Athletes ........................... 26 Interpersonal Knowledge on Perceiving Athletes as Barriers ...................................... 29 Intrapersonal Knowledge ................................................................................................. 30 Intrapersonal Knowledge on Personal Coaching Experiences ..................................... 30 Intrapersonal Knowledge on Personal Athletic Experiences ....................................... 32 An Extreme Case ............................................................................................................. 34 Discussion .......................................................................................................................... 35 Coaches’ Roles During Athletes’ Injury Experience ....................................................... 35 Coaches’ Use of the ISCF Knowledge Types to Support Injured Athletes ...................... 37 Coaches’ Perceived Barriers to Providing Social Support to Injured Athletes ................. 42 Limitations ...................................................................................................................... 44 Practical Implications ...................................................................................................... 45 Future Research ............................................................................................................... 49 Conclusion .......................................................................................................................... 51 References .......................................................................................................................... 53 Appendix A: Literature Review .......................................................................................... 68 Psychological and Emotional Responses to Injury ...................................................... 68 Stages of Injury Rehabilitation .................................................................................... 72 v Injury Response Model ............................................................................................... 73 Social Support ................................................................................................................. 74 Types of Social Support .............................................................................................. 75 Emotional ............................................................................................................... 75 Informational .......................................................................................................... 75 Tangible .................................................................................................................. 76 Role of Social Support in Injury Rehabilitation ............................................................... 77 Coaches as a Source of Social Support ............................................................................ 79 International Sport Coaching Framework ................................................................... 83 Professional Knowledge ......................................................................................... 84 Interpersonal Knowledge ........................................................................................ 85 Intrapersonal Knowledge ........................................................................................ 86 Athlete Outcomes........................................................................................................ 87 Coach-Athlete Relationships ....................................................................................... 88 Appendix B: Assumptions, Key Terms, and Limitations .................................................... 90 Assumptions .................................................................................................................... 90 Definition of Key Terms .................................................................................................. 90 Limitations ...................................................................................................................... 91 Appendix C: Researcher Positionality ................................................................................ 92 Appendix D: Data Collection ............................................................................................. 96 Semi-Structured Interview Guide .................................................................................... 96 Appendix E: Tables ............................................................................................................ 97 Appendix F: Figures ......................................................................................................... 103 vi List of Figures Figure 1. Integrated model of response to sport injury ...................................................... 103 vii List of Tables Table 1. Participant demographic information .................................................................... 97 Table 2. Interview questions aligned with the International Sport Coaching Framework ... 98 Table 3. Code map of iterations of analysis for Professional Knowledge ........................... 99 Table 4. Code map of iterations of analysis for Interpersonal Knowledge ........................ 101 Table 5. Code map of iterations of analysis for Intrapersonal Knowledge ........................ 102 COACH PROVIDED SOCIAL SUPPORT FOR INJURED ATHLETES 1 SUPPORTING THE INJURED ATHLETE: COACHES’ PERSPECTIVES ON PROVIDING SOCIAL SUPPORT Approximately one million injuries were sustained by athletes participating in sport in the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) between 2009 and 2014 (Kerr et al., 2015). Injury is an inevitable reality when participating in sport (Chalmers, 2002), and coaches must be prepared to help athletes through injury rehabilitation. Initial evidence suggests coaches believe their primary role during their athletes’ injury rehabilitation is helping them return to competition (Podlog & Eklund, 2007b). More specifically, Fernandes et al. (2014) highlighted the importance of coaches taking a holistic approach to improving injury outcomes for athletes, extending beyond physical rehabilitation to include both social (e.g., helping athletes stay involved with their team) and psychological factors (e.g., managing expectations, referring them to a sport psychology consultant). This holistic approach helps athletes to make a full recovery, ensuring the injury is physically healed and the athlete is psychologically ready to return to sport safely. Social support is one tool available to coaches that helps them to address athletes’ emotional, psychological, and social needs related to injury and has frequently been cited as one of the most important psychosocial factors during athletes’ rehabilitation (Yang, Peek-Asa, Lowe, Heiden, & Foster, 2010). Social support is defined as “an exchange of resources between at least two individuals perceived by the provider or the recipient to be intended to enhance the well-being of the recipient” (Shumaker & Brownell, 1984, p. 13). Johnston and Carroll (1998) found both emotional and informational support from coaches was especially important to athletes as they finished rehabilitation and began re-integrating into practice and competition. Further, Podlog and Dionigi (2010) reported coaches used social support strategies such as goal setting, cognitive reframing, and continued team involvement to improve injured athletes’ sense of competence, COACH PROVIDED SOCIAL SUPPORT FOR INJURED ATHLETES 2 autonomy, and relatedness throughout rehabilitation. Awareness of athletes’ needs and knowledge on specific approaches are crucial to effectively supporting athletes whose responses to injury may be highly variable and dependent on the individual. The integrated model of response to sport injury (Wiese-Bjornstal, Smith, Shaffer, & Morrey, 1998) offers a framework from which to explore the psychological response to athletic injury. Specifically, the integrated model demonstrates the dynamic nature of injury rehabilitation; both personal factors (e.g., injury severity, injury type, gender, age, athletic identity) and situational factors (e.g., type of sport, coach influence, social support provision, rehabilitation environment) influence athletes’ cognitive appraisal of their injury, which informs both emotional and behavioral responses. Within the model, social support and coach influences are recognized as situational factors that can positively or negatively affect how athletes evaluate their injuries. When athletes negatively appraise their injuries, they may experience greater frustration, depression, and anxiety, which can hinder their desire to comply with rehabilitation protocols (Clement, Arvinen-Barrow, & Fetty, 2015; Johnston & Carroll, 1998). Social support research highlights a need for not only a greater amount of support being offered by coaches, but also better-quality support as well (Abgarov, Jeffery-Tosoni, Baker, & Fraser-Thomas, 2012; Ruddock-Hudson, O’Halloran, & Murphy, 2012; Ruddock-Hudson, O’Halloran, & Murphy, 2014). In one study on college athletes’ injury experiences, athletes reported their coaches doubted the severity of their injuries and that discussing their injuries with their coaches was challenging (Abgarov et al., 2012). Similarly, Ruddock-Hudson et al. (2012) found professional footballers reported a lack of support from coaches and desired more interactions with coaches during rehabilitation. Additionally, these athletes described their coaches as pushing them to return to play rather than taking the time to rehabilitate. In the COACH PROVIDED SOCIAL SUPPORT FOR INJURED ATHLETES 3 Ruddock-Hudson et al. (2014) study of professional footballers, the athletes reported coaches offered support immediately following the injury, which dramatically declined once athletes began rehabilitation. Although these studies suggest coaches do not offer support that is both needed and desired by athletes during injury rehabilitation, there are a dearth of solutions for improving these circumstances. Perhaps some of the frustration athletes experienced comes from the difference between their expectations for how their coaches should support them and what coaches are truly capable of providing. For example, Ruddock-Hudson et al. (2012) found a small number of the athletes in their study recognized coaches need to balance simultaneous and competing demands, such as coaching their team while supporting their injured athletes. A critical need exists to examine how coaches perceive the provision of social support to injured athletes and how their coaching knowledge may impact their willingness and ability to do so effectively. Maurice, Kuklick, and Anderson (2017) proposed using the International Sport Coaching Framework (ISCF; ICCE, 2014) to examine how coaches use specific forms of coaching knowledge to navigate athletes’ injury experiences, specifically regarding their attitudes and behaviors towards providing social support during athletes’ rehabilitation. International Sport Coaching Framework The ISCF was developed by the International Council for Coaching Excellence (ICCE, 2014) and highlights the knowledge effective coaches should possess to promote positive athlete outcomes, such as competence, confidence, connection, and character (Côté & Gilbert, 2009). Knowledge is categorized into three types: professional, interpersonal, and intrapersonal. Professional knowledge refers to tactical and procedural understanding (Cassidy, Jones, & Potrac, 2009), which may include providing information about the injury or specific activities athletes can engage in that will not aggravate their injuries further. Professional knowledge may also COACH PROVIDED SOCIAL SUPPORT FOR INJURED ATHLETES 4 assist coaches in referring athletes to other professionals who can help. Interpersonal knowledge refers to the social aspect of coaching (Bowes & Jones, 2006). Coaches can implement interpersonal knowledge with their injured athletes to gain a better understanding of the social support needs of their athletes, which are dependent upon the type of stressor experienced (i.e., optimal matching hypothesis; Cutrona, 1990; Cutrona & Russell, 1990). Social support from coaches that is misaligned with athletes’ needs can be perceived by athletes as non-supportive and represent a poor use of interpersonal knowledge. Lastly, intrapersonal knowledge refers to coaches’ ability to reflect and be introspective (Côté & Gilbert, 2009). Coaches can use intrapersonal knowledge to improve their interactions with injured athletes and help create a safe and positive environment for athletes to recover from their injuries. Despite the reality that injury is an inevitable facet of sport (Chalmers, 2002), there is a lack of research examining coaches as a component of the rehabilitation experience. By using the ISCF and its three knowledge types as a framework, researchers can begin to gain insight into coaches’ expectations and experiences with injury and potentially offer explanations for why athletes have felt unsupported by their coaches (Maurice et al., 2017). Coaches’ Provision of Social Support Several studies have examined how coaches have engaged with their injured athletes during their recovery. In a study of eight professional coaches of high-performance athletes (i.e., national to Olympic level), Podlog and Dionigi (2010) found coaches acknowledged the difficulties their athletes faced (i.e., re-injury anxiety, lack of confidence or time pressure). The coaches also identified strategies that helped them support injured athletes, such as forming a treatment team, having open communication, and offering social support. Coaches within this study expressed the value of social support as a critical component of the recovery process for COACH PROVIDED SOCIAL SUPPORT FOR INJURED ATHLETES 5 their athletes and a need to take a more individualized approach to help athletes return to practice and competition (i.e., using interpersonal knowledge). Within the provision of social support, coaches needed to not only tailor their approach to their specific athletes (i.e., interpersonal knowledge), they also helped the athletes adjust and manage their training plans (i.e., professional and intrapersonal knowledge). Though the professional coaches in this study appeared to be incorporating elements of the ISCF coaching knowledge when working with their injured athletes, these coaches represent the behaviors of only eight coaches at an elite level of sport and these views may not transfer to coaches’ views at other levels of sport (e.g., high school, college). Further, evidence suggests a discrepancy exists between the degree of social support coaches believe they provide and the amount of social support injured athletes report receiving from coaches (Corbillon, Crossman, & Jamieson, 2008; Gould, Udry, Bridges, & Beck, 1997; Udry, Gould, Bridges, & Tuffey, 1997). For example, some professional coaches have explained their primary role in injury rehabilitation is to prepare athletes for a return to competition (Podlog & Eklund, 2007b) while athletes have expressed that coaches frequently leave them to make their own decisions about how to best return from injury (Udry et al., 1997). Injured athletes who are without social support during their rehabilitation may experience higher levels of depression (Clement & Shannon, 2011), and athletes who are dissatisfied with the social support they received are likely to experience psychological distress (Green & Weinberg, 2001). Udry et al. (1997) interviewed members of the U.S. Ski Team who had sustained season-ending injuries and found these athletes perceived their coaches to be the most negative influence during their rehabilitation period. Specifically, these athletes felt ignored during their recovery as coaches reduced or stopped communication with them entirely. In other instances, the athletes COACH PROVIDED SOCIAL SUPPORT FOR INJURED ATHLETES 6 felt coaches were insensitive to injuries and reported coaches thought they were a problem and did not believe fully in the extent of injuries. Additionally, the athletes explained their coaches did not express confidence in their ability to return from injuries and were often unavailable to help during rehabilitation, which left the athletes to manage their recovery on their own. This study, however, focused solely on the interpretations of the athletes without giving voice to coaches. Many of the studies reporting a lack of social support from coaches (e.g., Abgarov et al., 2012; Ruddock-Hudson et al., 2012; Ruddock-Hudson et al., 2014) have not included coaches. By focusing solely on athletes, researchers cannot fully explain why coaches do not offer social support that athletes find beneficial. Injured athletes have reported seeking out and receiving social support most frequently from their athletic trainers (Clement & Shannon, 2011; Robbins & Rosenfeld, 2001; Yang et al., 2010), which may be due to the quantity of time spent with athletic trainers during injury recovery or the perceived unavailability of coaches who are focused on participating athletes (Ruddock-Hudson et al., 2014). When athletes have reported receiving support from their coaches, they most frequently cited their coaches as providing informational support (Johnston & Carroll, 2000; Johnston & Carroll, 1998; Corbillon et al., 2008; Rosenfeld, Richman, & Hardy, 1989). Informational support may include education about the injury, feedback about their return timeframe, or their role on the team. Injured athletes have reported coaches do not care about their recovery and remain distant while the injured athletes recover (Udry et al., 1997), which suggests coaches may not be offering enough emotional support. Tangible support may be more difficult for coaches to provide due to organizational restrictions (i.e., NCAA). Robbins and Rosenfeld (2001) suggested, in some cases, coaches did not offer extra support for injured athletes because it may be perceived as unfair to the rest of their team, even if coaches were COACH PROVIDED SOCIAL SUPPORT FOR INJURED ATHLETES 7 aware that the addition of support would have been helpful. Thus, it appears essential for coaches to help injured athletes create a network that includes many people who can meet their diverse social support needs. Integrating Coaching Knowledge into Injury Rehabilitation For athletes rehabilitating an injury, maintaining a connection to their coaches is an essential part of progressing effectively through the stages of rehabilitation (i.e., occurrence of injury, rehabilitation, return to competition) and returning to competition (Bianco, 2001; Podlog & Dionigi, 2010). In the initial injury stage, athletes who sustain an injury first experience an emotional response characterized by uncertainty about the remainder of their season or their ability to continue participating in their sport (Johnston & Carroll, 2000; Madrigal & Gill, 2014; McDonald & Hardy, 1990). Using interpersonal knowledge, coaches can be a source of emotional support for athletes and assist athletes in maintaining their connections to the team. In the second stage, athletes receive a diagnosis and begin their rehabilitation (Bianco, 2007). Athletes rehabilitating an injury are susceptible to feelings of grief (Evans & Hardy, 1995; Tracey, 2003) and low self-esteem (Deroche, Stephan, Brewer, & Le Scanff, 2007) as they are now physically removed from their sport environment. Coaches, then, may find time becomes a barrier as they attempt to engage with injured athletes who are not active in practices and games. Coaches may have the opportunity to demonstrate their professional knowledge as it relates not only to the specific injury but also to the injury recovery process. However, it can be argued offering specific information on the injury itself is outside the bounds of coaching competency and perceived as a barrier by coaches. Finally, in the third stage, athletes finish their rehabilitation and return to their sport. During the last phase, athletes can experience doubts about their physical competence and negative psychological responses, such as re-injury COACH PROVIDED SOCIAL SUPPORT FOR INJURED ATHLETES 8 anxiety (Houston, Cross, Saliba, & Hertel, 2014; Podlog & Eklund, 2007a). Coaches can use intrapersonal knowledge by engaging in reflection with injured athletes to highlight the effort put in and the progress athletes have made throughout the process of rehabilitation. Due to the degree of influence coaches have on their athletes, there is great potential for coaches to actively support athletes throughout the stages of rehabilitation by using various coaching knowledge types and promoting positive outcomes (Bianco, 2007). Gaps, Limitations, and Study Purpose Coaches may be under the impression they are already providing social support to their injured athletes (Podlog & Dionigi, 2010), but as research has shown (e.g., Abgarov et al., 2012), athletes are not satisfied with the support coaches are providing. Dissatisfaction with coaches’ quantity and quality of social support has the potential to create negative consequences for injured athletes. Much of the research on social support for injured athletes has been from the perspective of the athletes and has not included coaches (e.g., Abgarov et al., 2012; Corbillon et al., 2008; Ruddock-Hudson et al., 2014). The research that has examined coaches’ perspectives on injury rehabilitation (e.g., Podlog & Eklund, 2007b; Podlog & Dionigi, 2010) was completed almost a decade ago and did not use a framework specific to coaching. There also remains a dearth of literature on coaches at the collegiate level, which represents a competitive environment dependent upon preventing injuries and returning athletes to play quickly. In National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I (DI) sports, arguably the most competitive of any collegiate sport division, the pressure placed on athletes can be as intense as some professional sports leagues (Beron & Piquero, 2016; Huml, 2018). NCAA DI athletics are operated like a business despite athletes being labeled as amateurs and receiving little compensation in return for the stressors they endure, such as injury (Sanderson & Siegfried, 2018). In the business of college athletics, coaches’ COACH PROVIDED SOCIAL SUPPORT FOR INJURED ATHLETES 9 jobs often depend on their teams’ success. It is in the interest of college coaches, and their athletic departments, to keep their athletes healthy to produce the best results. Given the unique context of NCAA DI sport, it is vital to create environments that both support athletes’ well-being and allow coaches to use their knowledge and experiences to support their athletes. Until college coaches have been studied, researchers and those involved in college athletics will continue to have an incomplete understanding on how coaches can effectively interact with their injured athletes. The purpose of this study was to explore collegiate coaches’ knowledge related to the provision of social support to injured athletes throughout the phases of rehabilitation and return to competition. Using the ISCF as a guiding framework, this study had three primary goals: (1) gain insight into how coaches perceived their role in providing social support throughout the injury recovery process, (2) explore how coaches used the ISCF knowledge types in the context of supporting injured athletes, and (3) explore what coaches perceived to be barriers to their delivery of effective social support. Researcher Positionality Methods The researcher’s epistemology is that of a social constructivist. Social constructivism recognizes the impact culture and context have on an individual and how they experience the world and create their own meaning (Crotty, 1998; Fish, 1990). Social constructivists do not see an absolute truth, but rather they acknowledge all meaningful realities are socially constructed and influenced by culture (Crotty, 1998). The participants in this study were examined, not with an absolute truth of what is right and wrong, but with an appreciation for their culture and context to gain insight into how this shaped their views of coaching injured athletes. The COACH PROVIDED SOCIAL SUPPORT FOR INJURED ATHLETES 10 researcher recognized that the coaches’ reality and her own reality are the result of social processes and are limited to the context in which they were experienced. Study Design A generic qualitative approach, also referred to as an eclectic design, was used to explore coaches’ perceptions regarding their roles in the injury recovery process, the ways they use the ISCF knowledge types, and barriers they perceive in supporting their injured athletes. The exploratory approach needed to address the purpose of the current study does not fit neatly into one specific methodology. Merriam (1988) described studies using the generic qualitative approach as those that “simply seek to discover and understand a phenomenon, a process, or the perspectives and worldviews of the people involved” (p. 11). Percy, Kostere, and Kostere (2015) described the need for generic qualitative approaches when “the researcher has a body of pre knowledge/pre-understandings” about the topic in question that the researcher “wants to be able to more fully describe from the participants’ perspective” (p. 78). In the case of the current study, the researcher has knowledge of the research suggesting that athletes do not feel fully supported by their head coaches and is using this exploration to gain the perspective of head coaches and the ways they use their coaching knowledge in the context of athletic injury. Generic qualitative approaches also seek to gain a broader range of experiences from a more diverse sample, supporting the current study’s focus on maximum variation sampling (Percy et al., 2015). According to Cooper and Endacott (2007) and Caelli, Ray, and Mill (2003), generic qualitative approaches should have an explicit focus on their theoretical position to enhance the rigor of the studies. As a social constructivist, it was important for the researcher in the current study to focus on how coaches used their ISCF knowledge types within their unique context and culture. Thus, a generic qualitative approach was most appropriate for this inquiry. COACH PROVIDED SOCIAL SUPPORT FOR INJURED ATHLETES 11 Participants Participants were 13 NCAA DI head coaches (Mage = 45.85, SD = 11.2) including five women (Mage = 38.6, SD = 12.7) and eight men (Mage = 50.4, SD = 7.87) from 13 DI universities in the United States. Five coaches (2 female, 3 males) came from mid-sized universities (student population of 3,000-9,999) and eight (3 females, 5 males) from large universities (student population of at least 10,000). Four coaches were from universities without a football program (2 female, 2 male), four from universities with football programs in the Football Championship Subdivision (1 female, 3 males), and five from universities with football programs in the Football Bowl Subdivision (2 females, 3 males). The participants’ head coaching experience at the DI level ranged from 1 to 23 years (M = 9.1 years) and four to 31 years (M = 18.5 years) in any NCAA division. The sports coached by men within this sample included men’s and women’s basketball, baseball, football, women’s golf, women’s ice hockey, and men’s and women’s tennis. Sports coached by women within this sample included men’s and women’s swimming and diving, women’s gymnastics, women’s rowing, women’s soccer, and women’s volleyball (see Table 1 for more demographic information). The coaches in this study had experience in coaching athletes who had sustained an injury and returned to participation within the past year. The injured athlete must have sustained at least a minor injury causing time-loss from their sport (e.g., 4-7 days; Hagglund, Walder, Bahr, & Ekstrand, 2005), defined as “a physical complaint resulting from sports participation that forces the athlete to interrupt or modify his usual training plan for at least one training unit” during their competitive season (Malisoux, Frisch, Urhausen, Seil, & Theisen, 2013, p. 2896). Coaches were excluded from the study if their most recent athlete injury experience occurred more than one year ago, their athlete did not return to competition following an injury, or if their COACH PROVIDED SOCIAL SUPPORT FOR INJURED ATHLETES 12 only experience with injury was a head injury, season-ending, or career-ending injury. Head injuries were excluded from this study due to differences in athletes’ cognitive and emotional responses compared to those experiencing musculoskeletal injuries (Hutchison, Comper, Mainwaring, & Richard, 2011; Hutchison, Mainwaring, Comper, Richards & Bisschop, 2009). Procedures After receiving Institutional Review Board approval, participants were contacted for recruitment using a purposive sampling approach. The researcher used the United States Census Bureau’s regions to seek out maximum variation within the sample. There are nine regions total (Pacific, Mountain, South Atlantic, Middle Atlantic, New England, West South Central, East South Central, West North Central, and East North Central) that were used to identify NCAA DI coaches for participation. The researcher contacted 188 head coaches across the nine regions via email with information about the study and details for inclusion criteria if they wished to participate. The researcher attempted to contact the selected coaches via email and telephone up to three times in a 10-day period before moving onto another coach in the region. The number of coaches contacted per region ranged from two to 68. Due to their low numbers, female coaches were identified and contacted first and in the following order: those who coached men’s teams, co-ed teams, and women’s teams. From there, male coaches were identified and contacted to achieve maximum variation within the sample (e.g., varied ages, sport and gender of athletes coached). Using the maximum variation sampling strategy to achieve a heterogeneous sample was desirable in this study because of the dearth of research on coaches and injury; it was important to first gain the perspective of a diverse group who had varied coaching experiences rather than focus on one specific demographic of coaches. Interviewing the sample of coaches within this study using the maximum variation sampling strategy allowed the researcher to COACH PROVIDED SOCIAL SUPPORT FOR INJURED ATHLETES 13 uncover a broader spectrum of coach experiences (Miles et al., 2014). The final sample included 13 coaches who volunteered to participate (6.9% response rate); all met eligibility criteria. Coaches who agreed to participate in the study were sent a cover letter detailing what their participation would entail and how they would be compensated for their time (i.e., coaching book). The researcher conducted interviews lasting 10 to 57 minutes over the phone or a video chat service, such as Skype, which were audio-recorded. The mode of communication for each interview was determined by the participant based on their interest and comfort level. Eleven of the coaches were traveling to practice or competitions while being interviewed and chose to be interviewed over the phone. Data were collected using a semi-structured interview guide (Bellamy, Ostini, Martini, & Kairuz, 2016; Mertens, 1998). The semi-structured interview guide provided the researcher with flexibility to probe participant responses further while allowing her to maintain a level of consistency throughout her participant interviews. Each interview began by developing rapport with the coaches and building trust by explaining the researcher’s interest in giving coaches a voice in the literature as well as describing her family’s history in coaching. The interview questions were developed based on the core components of the ISCF, addressing multiple knowledge types (i.e., professional, interpersonal, and intrapersonal knowledge), and the stages of rehabilitation (see Table 2 for interview guide mapped onto the ISCF). Social constructivism shaped the format of the interview questions to elicit responses from coaches that would provide insight into both their specific social context and how their interactions and experiences shape their understanding of their world (Cushion, 2011; Crotty, 1998). The audio recordings and transcripts were kept in Filelocker, a software service that encrypted the files and protected participant confidentiality. The participants were reminded at both the start and close of the COACH PROVIDED SOCIAL SUPPORT FOR INJURED ATHLETES 14 interviews their confidentiality was of the utmost importance to the researcher. Participants were given the opportunity to choose their own pseudonyms so their identities may be protected in any representation of the data. Data collection spanned several months, throughout which the data was also transcribed and coded. After interviews were transcribed and the researcher began coding the interviews, participants were contacted again to engage in member reflections (Smith & McGannon, 2017). Three of the 13 coaches responded to the researcher’s follow-up to conduct member reflections. Member reflections were used to create a shared dialogue between the participant and the researcher about the analysis of the results. The member reflections allowed the participants to ask questions about the interpretation of the data as well as opportunities to evaluate and provide feedback and on the researcher’s findings (Tracy, 2010). The member reflections were a co participatory process that furthered the researcher’s understanding of the data. During this conversation, the coaches were also given the opportunity to add to the information they provided in their initial interview. The researcher prompted the participants with member reflection questions, which provided the participants an opportunity to give an opinion after hearing the researcher’s interpretations and shape the emerging analysis (Tracy, 2013). For example, after explaining her interpretation of the coaches’ perceptions of athletes as barriers to coaches’ delivery of social support, the researcher asked the participants what they thought of the interpretation and what that means to the participants in their specific context (i.e., within their team). The member reflections were not about verification but rather were intended to further the researcher’s interpretations of the findings and yield further insight. From these member reflections, the researcher learned that the coaches found value and meaning in the researcher’s interpretations of the data (Tracy, 2013). Conducting member reflections rather than member COACH PROVIDED SOCIAL SUPPORT FOR INJURED ATHLETES 15 checks allowed the researcher to engage in both epistemological constructionism (i.e., as knowledge is socially constructed, knowledge is not free from theory and understandings prior to engaging with participants) and ontological relativism (i.e., the perception of reality is dependent upon the mind experiencing it) (Smith & McGannon, 2017), which complemented her social constructivist epistemology. Upon the completion of member reflections, all coaches who participated in the study were given a coaching book in appreciation of their volunteer participation. Data Analysis The current study used the ISCF knowledge types as a guiding framework to conduct a thematic analysis of the data. The researcher first familiarized herself with the data by listening to the audio recordings of the coach interviews and reading the transcripts for accuracy and familiarity. While engaging with the data, the researcher created analytic memos (Miles, Huberman, & Saldaña, 2014) to denote interpretations of the data from collection through analysis. The interpretations noted in the memos pertained to how interview responses aligned with components of the ISCF and initial patterns within each coach’s unique context (i.e., sport, experiences). As a social constructivist, it was of value to take note of how coaches explained, and ascribed meaning to, the culture of their team, such as the way coaches engage differently with male and female athletes. The ISCF knowledge types were used as a guide for coding, which occurred in two cycles: (1) deductive in vivo coding and (2) focused coding. Deductive in vivo coding was selected as the method of analysis over inductive coding because of the need to identify codes connected to the existing framework (i.e., ISCF). The researcher used deductive in vivo coding during the initial coding process to identify the presence or omission of the ISCF knowledge COACH PROVIDED SOCIAL SUPPORT FOR INJURED ATHLETES 16 types. In vivo coding is appropriate when the researcher wants to honor the voices and the language used by the participants (Saldaña, 2013; Stringer, 1999). As a social constructivist, it was essential for the researcher to select a coding approach focused on the language used by the participants to better understand their lived experiences, such as the way they addressed concepts like perceived responsibility in their role as the head coach or descriptions of relationships with their athletes. Saldaña (2013) explains that in vivo coding allows a researcher to highlight the most significant ways the participant speaks about a phenomenon by coding components such as action verbs, impactful nouns, clever phrases, and/or repetition of words and phrases. One participant was analyzed separately as an extreme case due to distinct dissimilarities in the interview content and process as compared to the remaining participants. These distinctions are examined and described in further detail at the end of the results section. First cycle coding resulted in a list of codes related to each of the ISCF knowledge types. Second cycle coding consisted of the method of focused coding (Charmaz, 2006), which allowed the researcher to use the most frequent and salient codes to create categories, subthemes, and themes related to how coaches perceived their roles in the recovery process, the ways coaches used their ISCF knowledge types to support their athletes, and the barriers perceived by coaches as impeding their delivery of effective social support. A detailed map of these iterations is provided in Tables 3 through 5. During this process, the researcher continued to construct her understanding of the lived experiences of the coaches and the ways they made sense of their interactions. To enhance credibility, critical friends (Smith & McGannon, 2017) were used to process the researcher’s biases after she created codes, sub-themes, and themes from the data. The use of critical friends allowed for varying perspectives to view the data and were used for “challenging and developing interpretations made by any one researcher as they construct, not COACH PROVIDED SOCIAL SUPPORT FOR INJURED ATHLETES 17 find or discover through consensus, a coherent and theoretically sound argument to construct, support and defend the case they are making” (Smith & McGannon, 2017, p. 13). The researcher used two levels of critical friend engagement throughout the analysis. The first critical friend has experience in qualitative inquiry and has conducted research on the psychology of injury; her role as a critical friend began when the sub-themes and themes were first developed by the researcher. This individual challenged the researcher’s interpretations of the data to consolidate, clarify, and organize the sub-themes and themes. The second critical friend has experience in qualitative research and the coaching literature. This individual was engaged following the development of an initial theme structure and challenged the researchers’ interpretations to achieve additional theme refinement, clarity, and parsimony (e.g., Are these ideas distinct? What makes them so? How might this theme be re-labeled to more clearly reflect the contents of the data?). Each critical friend was used to clarify the researcher’s process and basis for interpretation, including impressions and interpretations. Both critical friends and the researcher maintained records of these conversations for the audit trail and later reflection by the researcher. Results The results are organized according to the ISCF knowledge types (i.e., professional, interpersonal, and intrapersonal), which were used as a framework for the analysis. Themes and subthemes are described within each knowledge type with key quotes from coaches. Professional Knowledge Five themes characterized coaches’ demonstration of professional knowledge in the context of athletes’ injuries: (a) using resources, (b) injury prevention, (c) phases of injury rehabilitation, (d) sustaining injured athletes’ involvement, and (e) athlete welfare. See Table 3 for the iterations of analysis for professional knowledge. COACH PROVIDED SOCIAL SUPPORT FOR INJURED ATHLETES 18 Professional knowledge of resources. The ability to recognize when to use a resource, and which resource is the most appropriate, is an important demonstration of professional knowledge as it relates to injured athletes. Relative to professional knowledge of resources, two sub-themes were identified: (a) the network roles that need to be fulfilled to support injured athletes and (b) the accessibility of resources for supporting injured athletes. Within the first sub-theme, coaches described the network of individuals needed to fully support their injured athletes, such as doctors and sport psychology consultants. All 13 coaches emphasized the importance of having a network of professionals (e.g., athletic trainers, doctors, and sport psychologists) as resources to help them support their injured athletes. Howard, a baseball coach, described the need to “rely on the medical professional. And most importantly, for Division I, or any coach, you have to listen to the medical professional.” Howard further expressed: As a coach, I have no medical expertise; none. I understand baseball and I understand movements related to baseball and things that need to happen, but structurally and medically, I don't, so I always lean on professionals to guide me if I'm unaware. Many of the coaches relied on athletic trainers, sometimes described as medical professionals, as their primary resource when athletes sustained injuries and expressed the value of using their athletic training staff when designing training plans. All the coaches discussed the importance of listening to their athletic trainers and trusting they have athletes’ best interests in mind, as demonstrated by women’s soccer coach, Lauren: Listen to your medical staff, if they're telling you to do something, don't overrule them. As much as sometimes I want to strangle my AT, she's not trying to sabotage us and she's COACH PROVIDED SOCIAL SUPPORT FOR INJURED ATHLETES 19 not trying to control my decisions, she's trying to give me all the information I need to make the best one. The coaches also addressed the value of sport psychology consultants as members of a support team. All the coaches reported having access to sport psychology services, but Claire (gymnastics), Kevin (women’s basketball), Lauren (women’s soccer), Noah (men’s and women’s tennis) and Owen (men’s basketball) were the only coaches making referrals for these services. Coaches who made referrals to sport psychology services understood the role sport psychology has during recovery, as Noah, a men’s and women’s tennis coach, explained: If you have somebody in your department to refer them to where they can get that help, because many times it's not the injury that's affecting the player after they're back on the fields or the courts, it's the psychological hurdle that they have to get over. Within the second sub-theme, coaches described the accessibility of resources for supporting injured athletes. For some coaches, the lack of medical resources available impacted their ability to find support for their athletes (e.g., informational support for their injury). Noah (men’s and women’s tennis) discussed this in his interview, “we were under-equipped in the sports medicine department. Very small room, very few people working in there to service the sport. So, a lot of times we couldn't get in to see him when we needed to.” David (women’s soccer) reported, “we don't have that overall access over a 12-hour day to all facilities, where we can schedule what works for us so that we can maintain that strength so that we limit some of those injuries.” The way resources were allocated varied based on the sport and athletes’ status on the team. Mason (football) explained: “I guarantee, the number 10 guy would get [the MRI]. And the number 101 guy would wait until it was paid for by their insurance, which I think is wrong.” Coaches, such as Noah (men’s and women’s tennis) and David (women’s soccer), were COACH PROVIDED SOCIAL SUPPORT FOR INJURED ATHLETES 20 attempting to use their professional knowledge to support their athletes, but were limited to the resources available to them. Professional knowledge of injury prevention. Relative to the theme of professional knowledge of injury prevention, coaches described the importance of using and staying current on proper training techniques and helping athletes with the mental aspects of injury. Many coaches noted a lack of medical knowledge but were knowledgeable of injury prevention (e.g., fatigue, poor training) and applying instructional techniques to reduce injury incidence. For example, Lauren (women’s soccer) explained, “we are very strict on teaching correct technique because although it doesn't completely eradicate injury, it minimizes it and there's plenty of research on that.” David (women’s soccer), expressed his concerns about his athletes’ being fatigued during competition: I know that the longer you leave someone in a situation where they start to fatigue, the more likely it is that they're going to pick up an injury, because they can't play at the same level when they get fatigued as they did when they first went into a game. Many of the coaches felt prepared and educated on how to use preventive approaches to injury, such as addressing training techniques, but felt less knowledgeable about what to do after the injury was sustained. The coaches shared candidly that their medical knowledge regarding injury is limited but they expressed a desire to continue to learn more and educate themselves about their athletes’ injuries, as expressed by Tanya (women’s volleyball): I am very candid about what I don't know and I have no problem asking our athletic trainers just, "Wow, I've never seen this before. I don't even know what you're talking about with this injury. So, can you explain it to me? Because I don't know." COACH PROVIDED SOCIAL SUPPORT FOR INJURED ATHLETES 21 Emily (women’s rowing), however, had stopped trying to learn more about injuries: “I'm not allowed to do stuff with them [injured athletes]. I have to stay hands off…But as far as me looking for more information, I've stopped doing that here because they [the university] discourage us from doing that.” Emily’s situation appeared to be unique to her university as this was not expressed by any other coach. Professional knowledge on phases of injury rehabilitation. Professional knowledge in the athletic injury context requires coaches to be aware of the phases of injury rehabilitation and the ways athletes’ needs may vary across each phase. Relative to professional knowledge of the phases of injury rehabilitation, two sub-themes were identified: (a) managing their own emotional responses to athletes’ injuries and (b) being cognizant of performance decrements that may occur as a part of the recovery process. Within the first sub-theme, coaches described a need to monitor their own emotional responses during the occurrence of injury phase of rehabilitation. Coaches recognized their reactions to athletes’ injuries often impacted their athletes’ reactions. Coaches were asked to describe how they engage with athletes throughout the phases of rehabilitation (i.e., occurrence of injury, treatment and recovery, and return to full competition). Lauren’s (women’s soccer) explanation of her reaction to injuries was like other coaches, where staying calm herself was a necessary element of keeping her athlete calm: I try to be very calm and try and just reiterate, ‘Hey, it's part of the game. You're not the first, you're not the last.’ I just try and take the emotion out of it, because it's a very emotional time. Claire, a women’s gymnastics coach, explained the importance of managing emotional responses based on injury severity: COACH PROVIDED SOCIAL SUPPORT FOR INJURED ATHLETES 22 If it's something that happens in practice and it's a one-time impact kind of injury, we obviously go to the athlete right away and give them the care that they need. If it's an over time kind of thing, we usually check in periodically, and work with them on what makes the most sense for them to do that day, whether it's rehab, or if they have to alter practice in any way. Within the second sub-theme, coaches described the importance of acknowledging the ways athletes’ performance may decline because of their inability to participate in practice and training during the treatment and recovery phases of rehabilitation. Owen (men’s basketball), noted: Yeah, I think the main thing when those guys get hurt is when they come back, their conditioning is not as good as it was before they left. And so physically they struggle a little bit just kind of getting their bodies back on a little bit. Noah (men’s and women’s tennis) echoed this sentiment: We know that they're more than likely not going be hitting exactly like they were, or performing exactly like they were before the injury, based on how long it was. And we also know that they could get extra critical, or disappointed, or negative towards their game, when it's not coming right back. Professional knowledge on injured athletes’ sustained involvement. Relative to professional knowledge on injured athletes’ sustained involvement, all the coaches stressed the importance of keeping athletes involved with the team after they have become injured. Coaches described strategies they use to incorporate their injured athletes into practice. Doing this allowed athletes to maintain contact with their team and for some, get physical conditioning. The COACH PROVIDED SOCIAL SUPPORT FOR INJURED ATHLETES 23 coaches shared a belief that being around the team would keep athletes involved with the team’s progress. Kevin (women’s basketball) explained: I want them to be at practice and I want them around the team. Just not be away from them, so I expect them at practice…I make them take notes, make sure they know what’s going on so they don’t get behind. Some coaches provided challenges for injured athletes to keep them engaged, such as Claire (women’s gymnastics): We've given one of our athletes a challenge, and she needs to reach out to three different people during practice, and encourage them. So, giving them ways that they can become really good teammates during this time and not all the focus is just on the rehab... I think that's really key for getting them mentally out of the struggles of the injury. Coaches described the value of maintaining a social connection to their teammates by giving injured athletes new roles on the team. Coaches shared their technique of assigning injured athletes new roles to keep them engaged in practice, such as Lauren (women’s soccer): A big help has been just giving them other roles, so they have a specific role at practice. So even if it's things like, "Hey, I need the waters. Can you help me set practice up?" Go through the practice plan with them, just so they feel like they're part of it. Ultimately, coaches seemed to prefer athletes do their rehabilitation exercises during team training times to still be involved in the team activities. Professional knowledge on athlete welfare. Coaches expressed the importance of keeping their players safe. Relative to professional knowledge on athlete welfare, two sub themes were identified: (a) how to make the right decision about return to play and (b) having a person-first focus. COACH PROVIDED SOCIAL SUPPORT FOR INJURED ATHLETES 24 Within the first sub-theme, coaches described the importance of trusting both their athletes and medical staff regarding readiness to return. When it came to making decisions about returning to play, coaches frequently described the need to keep their athletes’ welfare in mind. Howard, a baseball coach, shared: My responsibility is to have a good understanding of each player's ability to deal with things…And like I said, we got measures in place to protect these young kids and make sure they're not in any danger, and hopefully, we'll continue to monitor and keep those types of things from happening. In some cases, coaches had to sit down with athletes and remind them to focus on recovering, like Allison, a men’s and women’s swimming and diving coach: A true athlete's going to want to, after an injury, get back as soon as possible, but you have to be willing to say, "No, you're not ready," and say, "Just give it another week or two weeks." And that's kind of what you have to do with those ones. Tanya (women’s volleyball) explained: I think it's a huge responsibility of the coach to acknowledge that and really dial back and figure out a way to progress that player back, where it's not rushing them and yet still pushing them… I think it's our responsibility as the coach to really dictate how we get them back without stressing them out, feeling, "Oh my gosh, I have to get back this quickly, I need to be back on the floor, my team needs me." All of that, I think, it's our responsibility to keep the athletes safe. Within the second sub-theme, coaches described a need to focus on their athletes as a person and not on their win-loss record while their injured athletes recover. Allison (men’s and COACH PROVIDED SOCIAL SUPPORT FOR INJURED ATHLETES 25 women’s swimming and diving) extended the notion of keeping athletes safe and treating them as people: Know at the end of the day, they [athletes] and their well-being and them...They as a person, is more important than your win-loss record, and I think sometimes coaches get caught up in that and I know there's all dif

tigma, Attitudes, and Intentions to Seek Mental Health Services in College Student-Athletes Stigma, Attitudes, and Intentions to Seek Mental Health Services in College Student-Athletes Robert C. Hilliard M.S. West Virginia University, rchilliard@mix.wvu.edu Follow this and additional works at: https://researchrepository.wvu.edu/etd Part of the Counseling Commons, and the Sports Studies Commons Recommended Citation Hilliard, Robert C. M.S., "Stigma, Attitudes, and Intentions to Seek Mental Health Services in College Student-Athletes" (2019). Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports. 4126. https://researchrepository.wvu.edu/etd/4126 This Dissertation is protected by copyright and/or related rights. It has been brought to you by the The Research Repository @ WVU with permission from the rights-holder(s). You are free to use this Dissertation in any way that is permitted by the copyright and related rights legislation that applies to your use. For other uses you must obtain permission from the rights-holder(s) directly, unless additional rights are indicated by a Creative Commons license in the record and/ or on the work itself. This Dissertation has been accepted for inclusion in WVU Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports collection by an authorized administrator of The Research Repository @ WVU. For more information, please contact researchrepository@mail.wvu.edu. Stigma, attitudes, and intentions to seek mental health services in college student-athletes Robert C. Hilliard Jr. Dissertation submitted to the College of Physical Activity and Sport Sciences at West Virginia University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctorate of Philosophy in Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology Jack C. Watson II, PhD, Chair Samuel Zizzi, EdD Edward Etzel, EdD Aaron Metzger, PhD Department of Sport Sciences Morgantown, WV 2019 Keywords: counseling; help-seeking behavior; well-being; sport psychology; quantitative Copyright 2019 Robert Hilliard ABSTRACT Stigma, attitudes, and intentions to seek mental health services in college student-athletes Robert Hilliard Previous researchers have found several factors that act as barriers to college student-athletes seeking mental health services (López & Levy, 2013; Moore, 2017). One common factor throughout these studies is stigma, which is known to be associated with less favorable attitudes toward seeking help (Moreland et al., 2018). However, researchers have not explored how stigma and attitudes might influence intentions to seek counseling and actual help-seeking behaviors in student-athletes. Additionally, there is a dearth of research identifying the topics for which student-athletes are most willing to seek help. Therefore, the purposes of this study were to investigate predictors of mental health help-seeking as well as identify topics for which college student-athletes are most likely to seek help. The sample consisted of participants (N = 325) from three Division II and III universities. Findings indicated public stigma was significantly related to self-stigma, but social network stigma was not. Self-stigma was related to attitudes and attitudes were related to intentions. Using logistic regression analysis, self-stigma and attitudes were found to be significant predictors of help-seeking behavior. Specifically, both were associated with an increased likelihood of having sought mental health services in the past. Regarding help-seeking topics, drug problems, depression, and excessive alcohol use were the highest rated issues for which student-athletes were likely to seek help, whereas concerns about sexuality, difficulty with friends, and body image were rated the lowest. The results of this study can be used to help sport psychologists and other mental health staff develop programming that might lead to increased service use amongst collegiate student-athletes. Specifically, it appears that using a multifaceted approach to improving attitudes could have the most meaningful effect on encouraging service use. iii Acknowledgements I have saved this section for last because I have struggled to find the words to thank the people in my life who deserve to be in this section. The truth is that the words that are on this page will not ultimately be enough, but I will give it my best shot. My chair, Dr. Jack Watson II, is my obvious starting point. I cannot thank you enough for deciding to take me in four years ago as your student. I have spoken with so many friends across different universities who have had an advisor that has absolutely made or broken their experience in graduate school, and I am lucky enough that I am on the made side. I cannot thank you enough for the opportunities to be involved that you have given me, but also the incredible mentorship that has gone outside of research. Throughout this dissertation process you have inspired me to become a prolific reviewer who mandates everyone uses active voice by writing in first person so that I can begin shifting paradigms. But on a serious note, thank you for the stories, the support, and the confidence to get through this journey. I will be forever grateful. Dr. Sam Zizzi, your influence on my development as a graduate student also cannot be understated. In addition to the guidance up research mountain, your perspectives have constantly challenged me to become a better scholar, practitioner, and person. I will always be thankful for that. Dr. Ed Etzel, you have been such an integral part of my experience at WVU. I am so thankful that you agreed to be part of my committee despite retirement, but again, your role extends far beyond the dissertation. Your continual kindness and compassion is what I will remember the most and I can only hope to one day portray even a sliver of that sort of care with clients and students. Dr. Aaron Metzger, thank you so much for the guidance you have provided over the last year and a half. You are getting a lot of us trickling over into your department and you were always so willing to spend time helping me wade through the mass of confusion that can be statistics, particularly SEM. I also need to thank the rest of the WVU faculty. In some way, each one of you has impacted my life positively and helped me challenge myself to grow. Your support has meant a lot to me and allowed me to enjoy my experience on this path. To all of the WVU program that I have crossed paths with over these four years, thank you. As you all know, completing this journey is no easy task, and it would be substantially more difficult without people around you that you enjoy being with. Thank you for accepting me as I am and for the willingness to provide support whenever necessary. iv I also need to go further down the line with some thanks. Dr. Lindsey Blom and Dr. Robert Batsell, I cannot thank you enough for the mentoring you provided me through my Master’s and undergraduate degrees. Writing this dissertation was a whole lot easier because of the way you challenged me to grow as a writer, and I am forever thankful for that. To my family. Even though you still probably don’t quite understand exactly what I am in school for, you instilled in me a love for education at an early age and always encouraged me to continue finding involvement in things that interested me. Although this journey has continually taken me further and further from home, you are always a part of me. And finally, to my wife, Alisha. I suppose I owe Dr. Blom another acknowledgement of thanks here for bringing us into the same office, but she already knows what she did ☺. Our PhD journeys separated us for far too long, but even in that time, you were a constant source of support and sanity. I can’t wait to start our real journey together, wherever that may take us. v Table of Contents Introduction ............................................................................................................................................... 1 Stigma.......................................................................................................................................... 2 Help-Seeking Concerns ............................................................................................................... 4 The Current Study ....................................................................................................................... 6 Method ...................................................................................................................................................... 7 Participants .................................................................................................................................. 7 Measures...................................................................................................................................... 8 Social network stigma ............................................................................................................. 8 Public stigma. .......................................................................................................................... 9 Self-stigma. .............................................................................................................................. 9 Attitudes................................................................................................................................. 10 Intentions ............................................................................................................................... 10 Help-seeking topics ............................................................................................................... 11 Attention checks .................................................................................................................... 11 Demographics ........................................................................................................................ 12 Procedure ................................................................................................................................... 12 Data Analysis Plan .................................................................................................................... 12 Item parcels............................................................................................................................ 13 Results ..................................................................................................................................................... 14 Data Screening .......................................................................................................................... 14 Preliminary Analyses ................................................................................................................ 15 Relationships Between Stigma, Attitudes, and Intentions ........................................................ 15 Indirect effects. ...................................................................................................................... 16 Predicting Previous Help-Seeking ............................................................................................ 16 Help-Seeking Topics ................................................................................................................. 17 Discussion ............................................................................................................................................... 17 Help-Seeking Intentions and Behavior ..................................................................................... 18 Help-Seeking Topics ................................................................................................................. 22 Implications ............................................................................................................................... 24 Limitations and Future Research............................................................................................... 27 Conclusion .............................................................................................................................................. 29 References ............................................................................................................................................... 30 Appendix A: Figure and Tables............................................................................................................ 39 Figure 1: Structural model. .................................................................................................... 39 Table 1: Sport participation ................................................................................................... 40 Table 2: Correlations ............................................................................................................. 41 vi Table 3: Measurement model ................................................................................................ 42 Table 4: Indirect effects ......................................................................................................... 43 Table 5: Logistic regression .................................................................................................. 44 Table 6: Help seeking topics ................................................................................................. 45 Appendix B: Extended Review of Literature ...................................................................................... 46 The College Population ............................................................................................................. 47 Stigma: An Important Construct Related to Attitudes Toward Help-Seeking .......................... 48 Media Influences on Public Stigma .......................................................................................... 51 Stigma and Help-Seeking Theories ........................................................................................... 53 Measurement of Stigma, Attitudes, and Intentions ................................................................... 55 Attitudes and Intentions to Seek Help in the General Population ............................................. 61 Stigma, Attitudes, and Intentions Toward Help-Seeking in the General Population ................ 65 Mental health interventions to reduce stigma in the general population. .................................. 75 Summary of Stigma and Help-Seeking in the General Population ........................................... 77 Student-Athlete Help-Seeking................................................................................................... 78 Mental Health Interventions ...................................................................................................... 80 Barriers to Help-Seeking for Student-Athletes ......................................................................... 84 Stigma and Attitudes Toward Help Seeking in Athletes........................................................... 87 Likelihood of Seeking Counseling for Specific Issues ............................................................. 93 Future Research ......................................................................................................................... 96 References ................................................................................................................................. 98 Appendix C: Perceptions of Stigmatization by Others for Seeking Help ...................................... 119 Appendix D: Stigma Scale for Receiving Psychological Help ....................................................... 120 Appendix E: Self Stigma of Seeking Help ........................................................................................ 121 Appendix F: Attitudes Toward Seeking Professional Psychological Help Scale-Short Form .... 122 Appendix G: Mental Help Seeking Intention Scale ......................................................................... 123 Appendix H: Help-Seeking Topics .................................................................................................... 124 Appendix I: Demographics ................................................................................................................. 125 Appendix J: Post-hoc analyses for self-stigma ................................................................................. 126 Appendix K: IRB Approval .................................................................................................................... 127 Running head: STIGMA AND COUNSELING INTENTIONS 1 Introduction The recent suicide of a Washington State quarterback sent shockwaves throughout the National Collegiate Athletics Association (NCAA). This is but one of many publicized incidents of mental health issues amongst NCAA athletes, as it is a topic that has been increasing in public awareness (e.g., Associated Press, 2018; Scott, 2018). Its importance is demonstrated through the release of the NCAA Mental Health Best Practices guidelines (NCAA, 2016b) and NCAA research grants that focus on mental health. One component of mental health that has often been studied is stigma associated with seeking counseling services. Although many articles have been devoted to studying stigma and help-seeking attitudes in the general population and even elite athletes, college student-athletes have received significantly less attention. Some authors argue that this population is unique in its needs because of the various cultural factors associated with being a college student-athlete, and therefore are worthy of study (e.g., Etzel, Watson, Visek, & Maniar, 2006; Pinkerton, Hinz, & Barrow, 1989). A myriad of reasons could contribute to the increased need for mental health services amongst student-athletes, such as intense time demands for their sport, highly regimented schedules, and pressures to be successful academically and athletically (Jolly, 2008). Providing evidence for the spread of mental health concerns amongst student-athletes, the results of a recent study at a single university found that mental health issues had an influence on athletic performance in the previous month in 62.6% of the sample (Kern et al., 2017). In a nationwide survey of student-athletes across multiple schools and divisions conducted by the NCAA (2016a), 30% of student-athletes reported feeling overwhelmed in the last month. Gavrilova and Donohue (2018) listed anxiety, depression, substance use, eating disorders, stress, and relationship issues as the top concerns for student-athletes, which mirrors the general college population (Pérez-Rojas et al., 2017). For example, 23.7% of collegiate STIGMA AND COUNSELING INTENTIONS 2 athletes reported clinically significant levels of depression in a recent study (Wolanin, Hong, Marks, Panchoo, & Gross, 2016) and in another study at one university, 14% of the student athletes reported having a mental health condition (Sarac, Sarac, Pedroza, & Borchers, 2018). Despite the clear need for mental health services, several authors argue that student-athletes are still underutilizing these services (e.g., López & Levy, 2013; Moreland, Coxe, & Yang, 2018). A myriad of factors act as barriers to help-seeking for student-athletes. These include lack of time, concerns about confidentiality and being identified in public, worry that clinicians will not understand their lifestyle, and not recognizing the need to seek services (López & Levy, 2013; Moore, 2017; Watson, 2006). In addition to these variables, there is one factor that shows up repeatedly throughout the literature: stigma. As a result, it is likely that stigma plays a significant role in predicting help-seeking intentions and behavior. Stigma and Help-Seeking Corrigan (2004) asserts that two primary types of stigma exist regarding help-seeking, public and self-stigma. Public stigma is external and refers to a belief that society perceives seeking help for mental health treatment as undesirable and individuals who seek help are socially unacceptable. Self-stigma represents an internalization of public stigma in that an individual believes he or she is socially undesirable for seeking treatment. A further delineation of external stigma may also be helpful for understanding the roles that stigma may play in influencing counseling attitudes. Social network stigma is a form of external stigma (Topkaya, Vogel, & Brenner, 2017) that specifically refers to perceived stigma from individuals who are directly within one’s social network (Vogel, Wade, & Ascheman, 2009). Social network stigma is important because an individual may perceive the general public to hold one particular set of beliefs regarding mental health treatment, but the individual might be most concerned about what STIGMA AND COUNSELING INTENTIONS 3 close family and acquaintances think. In one study of Turkish college students that measured public and social network stigma, social network stigma was a unique predictor of self-stigma, although the strength of the pathway was much weaker than for public stigma (Topkaya et al., 2017). Further, there is extensive evidence that these forms of stigma influence attitudes and intentions toward help-seeking in a variety of populations (e.g., Garriott, Raque-Bogdan, Yalango, Schaefer Ziemer, & Utley, 2017). Similarly, stigma is often identified as a barrier to seeking counseling services for college student-athletes (e.g., López & Levy, 2013; Moore, 2017; Moreland et al., 2018). Participants in qualitative studies using athletes across different levels have also reported stigma to be a substantial impediment to seeking counseling services (e.g., Biggin, Burns, & Uphill, 2017; DeLenardo & Lennox Terrion, 2014; Moore, 2017). One reason that stigma might be particularly salient amongst collegiate athletes is the sociocultural aspect of sport, where masculine tenets associated with the sport environment often de-emphasize the need for seeking help and perceive individuals who do so as weak (Gucciardi, Hanton, & Fleming, 2017; Schinke, Stambulova, Si, & Moore, 2018). Therefore, different forms of stigma, including social network stigma, self stigma, and public stigma have all been associated with less favorable attitudes toward seeking counseling (e.g., Bird, Chow, Meir, & Freeman, 2018; Hilliard, Redmond, & Watson, 2018; Ramaeker & Petrie, 2019; Wahto, Swift, & Whipple, 2016). Specifically, social network stigma was found to be associated with increased levels of self-stigma and consequently less positive attitudes in NCAA Division I athletes (Bird, Chow, et al. 2018), whereas public stigma was associated with greater self-stigma and lower attitudes with student-athletes competing across multiple divisions (Hilliard et al., 2018; Wahto et al., 2016). However, no studies have measured public and social network stigma in the same sample of STIGMA AND COUNSELING INTENTIONS 4 student-athletes. Additionally, very little is known about factors that influence intentions to seek professional psychological help in student-athletes. Although attitudes are viewed as a proxy for intentions and behavior (e.g., Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980) and researchers have found that attitudes are related to actual help-seeking behaviors (ten Have et al., 2010), examining actual behaviors would help to get a more accurate picture of student-athlete help-seeking. Recently, some authors have investigated how depression and anxiety symptoms influence help-seeking intentions (Tahtinen & Kristjansdottir, 2018) and actual behavior (Drew & Matthews, 2018). In a recent study of male athletes, attitudes were significantly associated with intentions, although this relationship only accounted for eight percent of the variance (Ramaeker & Petrie, 2019). Additionally, conformity to masculine norms and stigma were indirectly related to intentions. This initial study provides support for the role stigma and attitudes might play in determining intentions. However, given the low variance accounting for intentions in this study, and the lack of an analysis related to actual help-seeking behaviors, more research is needed in this area. Help-Seeking Concerns Research in the general psychology literature has found that specific groups might vary on their willingness to seek counseling for various issues. There has been limited research on this topic amongst student-athletes; however, there is some insight that can be gleaned from this small body of research. One study examined preferences for concerns to discuss in sport psychology consultation amongst athletes from the U.S. and Japan (Naoi, Watson, Deaner, & Sato, 2011). This list included ten options related to performance enhancement as well as various personal concerns. Overall, the top three issues were all performance related: burnout/overtraining, confidence, and dealing with stress. Personal and mental health concerns all ranked in the bottom. Although this makes student-athletes’ willingness to seek help for STIGMA AND COUNSELING INTENTIONS 5 personal concerns appear bleak, the participants were asked to respond to topics they would prefer for sport psychology consultation. They may not have felt that discussing mental health concerns or drug/alcohol issues would be appropriate with a sport psychology consultant, but feel differently about doing so with a mental health professional. However, Moore (2017) recently found of student-athletes that amongst a list of possible behavioral services such as medical, tutoring, and mental health services, mental health related topics received the lowest ratings of comfort. Comfort does not necessarily equate to willingness, as student-athletes are required to meet with academic advisors and sports medicine professionals, so it is understandable that comfort with those services would be higher. Further, when given an option, student-athletes reported a greater willingness to seek help for personal issues from informal sources such as coaches, friends, or family (e.g., Bird, Chow, et al., 2018; Naoi et al., 2011; Maniar, Curry, Sommers-Flanagan, & Walsh, 2001). However, the research on specific presenting concerns for which student-athletes might be interested in seeking counseling is limited. Previous studies have either provided a limited number of sport-related concerns to rate such as overcoming a slump, dealing with injury, or seeking optimal performance (Maniar et al., 2001) or asked participants to rate topics to be discussed during sport psychology consultation (Naoi et al., 2011). Further, research on presenting concerns of college students has found minor differences between genders on why they seek counseling (Pérez-Rojas et al., 2017), but it is unknown if preferences for topics differ between male and female athletes and there has been no discussion of individuals who describe themselves as non-binary. This important line of inquiry can have implications for college counseling centers and sport psychology professionals. Further knowledge of the most and least salient presenting concerns can be used to promote appropriate mental health services and tailor outreach efforts. For example, counseling centers could STIGMA AND COUNSELING INTENTIONS 6 specifically describe the ways they could help student-athletes with their highest rated concerns and destigmatize lower rated concerns that might still be important issues to be addressed with professional help. The Current Study Unlike the broader counseling psychology research investigating other populations, a major limitation of the research with college student-athletes is the lack of studies examining intentions and actual help-seeking behavior, especially when including stigma as a predicting variable. Although researchers have often collected data on previous experience with mental health services, that data has not been included in the analyses. Thus, analyzing the role of stigma in direct relation to attitudes, intentions, and help-seeking behavior would expand understanding of help-seeking factors among student-athletes. Social network stigma may play an important role with student-athletes who have concerns over close others being aware of them seeking counseling (e.g., López & Levy, 2013; Moore, 2017). The measures for public and social network stigma have been found to be able to add unique variance in the prediction of self-stigma. Therefore, understanding the amount of influence of public and social network stigma on help-seeking could help practitioners tailor interventions and outreach to make more student-athletes feel comfortable seeking mental health services. Further, preferred presenting concerns for seeking help are vastly unexplored. The primary aim of this study was to investigate the relationships between public stigma, social network stigma, self-stigma, attitudes, and intentions to seek counseling in college student-athletes. Additionally, the predictive validity of these variables on previous help-seeking was investigated. A secondary aim of this study was to explore willingness to seek counseling for specific topics. STIGMA AND COUNSELING INTENTIONS 7 One framework that can help guide the understanding of health behavior is the Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA; Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980). In the TRA, Ajzen and Fishbein (1980) posit that subjective norms and attitudes combine to form intentions to engage in a behavior, which for the current study was seeking mental health services. Attitudes refer to an individual’s actual beliefs whereas subjective norms refer to the beliefs an individual perceives others to hold. Thus, public and social network stigma are measures that seem to adequately reflect components of TRA. Based on previous research, it was hypothesized that public stigma and social network stigma would both be positively associated with self-stigma. Additionally, it was hypothesized that the relationship between these two external forms of stigma with intentions would be mediated through self-stigma and attitudes. Specifically, it was hypothesized that self-stigma would be negatively associated with attitudes toward counseling, and attitudes would positively relate to intentions to seek counseling. Further, it was hypothesized that all indirect effects in the model would be significant. The current study also explored two different research questions. The first question was: what variables predict if a student-athlete has previously sought mental health services? The second research question was: what are the presenting concerns for which male and female student-athletes are most willing to seek help? Method Participants Participants (N = 328) from a convenience sample of three Division II or III universities in the Mid-Atlantic region of the United States completed surveys. These universities were selected because they did not have sport psychologists on campus, which could influence attitudes toward counseling. Additionally, Division II and III universities tend to have fewer resources available for athletes. The sample was primarily male (n = 224, n = 101 female, 3 did STIGMA AND COUNSELING INTENTIONS 8 not report gender) and predominately from Division III (n = 245, n = 81 Division II, 2 did not report). The student-athletes ranged in age from 18-24 (M = 19.53, SD = 1.29) and contained freshman (n = 112), sophomore (n = 90), junior (n = 73), senior (n = 47), and graduate student (n = 1) athletes. The student-athletes primarily identified as White/Caucasian (84%), followed by Black/African American (7%), biracial (4%), Hispanic/Latino (3%), and less than 1% each of Native American and Asian. Eleven sports were represented, including baseball, basketball, cross country, football, golf, soccer, softball, swimming, track and field, volleyball, and wrestling. Full data related to sport participation can be seen in Table 1. A majority of the sample had no previous experience seeking mental health services (80% no, 19 % yes, 1% did not respond), most had no previous experience with a sport psychology practitioner (88%= no, 10% = yes, 1% did not respond), and only 2% were currently on psychiatric medications. Measures Social network stigma. Perceived stigma from others who are within one’s social network was measured with the Perceptions of Stigmatization by Others for Seeking Help scale (PSOSH; Vogel et al., 2009). Participants responded to five items based on a five-point Likert type scale ranging from 1 (not at all) to 5 (a great deal). The items can be combined for a total score or averaged together for a composite score. Higher scores represent greater perceived stigmatization by others. The internal reliability across five samples including more than 2000 college students was adequate in the validation study (i.e., α = .78 to .89). A reliability of .88 was found in a sample of college student-athletes (Bird, Chow, et al., 2018). In the validation study, the authors found that social network stigma predicted variance in self-stigma beyond other public stigma measures and demonstrated test-retest reliability of r = .77 over three weeks (Vogel et al., 2009). The scale provides the following instructions: “Imagine you had a personal STIGMA AND COUNSELING INTENTIONS 9 difficulty that you could not solve on your own. If you sought counseling services for this issue, to what degree do you believe that the people you interact with would ___”. Following the recommendations of Vogel et al. (2009) to specify the sample, I specified those with whom you interact within the athletic context. A sample item is “think bad things of you.” Cronbach’s α = .82 in this study’s sample. See Appendix C for the scale. Public stigma. The Stigma Scale for Receiving Psychological Help (SSRPH; Komiya, Good, & Sherrod, 2000) was used to measure public stigma. This is a five-item scale with anchors ranging from 0 (strongly disagree) to 3 (strongly agree). Higher scores represent more perceived public stigma. A sample item is “seeing a psychologist for emotional or interpersonal problems carries social stigma.” In the validation study of 311 undergraduate students, the scale demonstrated adequate reliability (α = .72). Other samples using the scale have also found adequate validity above .70 (e.g., Topkaya et al., 2017; Vogel et al., 2009), including .81 in a sample of college student-athletes (Wahto et al., 2016). Komiya et al. (2000) found that a one factor solution fit best and the scale correlated negatively with help-seeking attitudes. In the current study, Cronbach’s α = .64. See Appendix D for the scale. Self-stigma. Self-stigma for seeking treatment was measured using the Self-Stigma of Seeking Help scale (SSOSH; Vogel, Wade, & Haake, 2006). This is a 10-item scale containing five reverse-scored items that is measured on a five-point Likert-scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). A sample question is “I would feel worse about myself if I could not solve my own problems.” After reverse scoring, higher scores reflect greater levels of self stigma for seeking help. Vogel et al. (2006) validated the scale in several samples of college students, which included more than 1000 participants. The internal consistency across those samples was good (i.e., α = .86 to .91). Additionally, factor analyses confirmed a STIGMA AND COUNSELING INTENTIONS 10 unidimensional structure. Self-stigma predicted counseling attitudes and intentions to seek help above other variables known to influence attitudes and was found to have a two-month test-retest reliability of r = .72. Similar stable psychometric properties have been found in samples of college student-athletes (e.g., Bird, Chow, et al., 2018; Ramaeker & Petrie, 2019). Cronbach’s α = .83 in the current study. See Appendix E for the scale. Attitudes. Attitudes toward seeking counseling was measured using the Attitudes Toward Seeking Professional Psychological Help-Short Form (ATSPPH-SF; Fischer & Farina, 1995). This scale is a shortened version of the original scale. This short version correlated highly with the full version in the initial validation study, r = .87. This scale contains ten items on a Likert-type scale ranging from 0 (disagree) to 3 (agree). Five of the items are reversed scored. After reverse scoring, higher scores indicate more positive attitudes toward counseling. A sample item is “I would want to get psychological help if I were worried or upset for a long period of time.” The scale had a one-month test-rest reliability of r = .80 and had an internal consistency of α = .84, similar to the internal consistency in samples of college athletes (Ramaeker & Petrie, 2019). Cronbach’s α = .78 in this study. See Appendix F for the scale. Intentions. The Mental Help-Seeking Intention Scale (MHSIS; Hammer & Spiker, 2018) was used to measure one’s intentions to seek counseling. The scale was created using a guide on developing Theory of Planned Behavior related instruments, which is an extension of TRA. The MHSIS is a three-item measure that examines intentions using a 7-point Likert-type scale that ranges from 1 to 7. Each of the three questions has different anchors (e.g., extremely unlikely to extremely likely). The three items are averaged together and a higher score represents greater intentions to seek counseling. This three-item version created by Hammer and Spiker was found to be unidimensional and had the greatest predictive validity compared with two other commonly STIGMA AND COUNSELING INTENTIONS 11 used intentions measures. The scale had an internal consistency of α = .94 in the validating study of 405 adults, which was similar to the α = .95 in this study. See Appendix G for the scale. Help-seeking topics. Presenting concerns that student-athletes would be most willing to seek help for were measured using a modified version of the Intentions to Seek Counseling Inventory (ISCI; Cash, Begley, McCown, & Weise, 1975). The original ISCI is a 17-item measure that contains three subscales: academic concerns, psychological and interpersonal concerns, and drug use concerns (Cepeda-Benito & Short, 1998). The four-point Likert-type scale ranges from 1 (very unlikely) to 4 (very likely). Some sample items for which participants indicate they might seek help include loneliness, drug problems, and depression. However, the list omits items that might be relevant to the student-athlete population (e.g., athletic performance). Additionally, some of the language was outdated and might not relate to contemporary college students. Therefore, after conducting a literature search and receiving feedback from licensed psychologists with experience working with collegiate students and student-athletes, some items were modified to reflect recent reports of prominent presenting problems in college counseling centers (Pérez-Rojas et al., 2017) and additional items were added that would be relevant to athletes (e.g., Gavrilova & Donohue, 2018). The final scale contained 20 items. Higher scores indicate a greater willingness to seek help. In this study, Cronbach’s α = .87. See Appendix H for the scale. Attention checks. To reduce the possibility of getting a response set from participants, one attention check question was interspersed throughout the questions as well as a brief distraction scale. Because survey packets were counterbalanced, two separate forms of attention checks were used depending on their place in the packet. One was “please write in the number for ‘a lot’ (4) to answer this question” and the other was “please circle 2 in response to this STIGMA AND COUNSELING INTENTIONS 12 question.” The social identity subscale of the Athletic Identity Measurement Scale (Brewer & Cornelius, 2001) was used as the distractor scale. This is a three-item measure that examines the strength that athletes identify with social aspects of that role. These items include “I consider myself an athlete”, “I have many goals related to sports”, and “most of my friends are athletes.” Demographics. The participants also responded to several demographic questions to provide basic background information. Some of the topics included sport, previous mental health treatment experience, and division of participation. See Appendix I for the questions. Procedure After receiving university IRB approval (Appendix K), the researcher contacted coaches at three universities. If the coach agreed to participate in the study, the researcher met with the team at a convenient time and place to administer the counterbalanced survey packet in person. No coaches or athletic staff were present during data collection. Following data collection, the researcher debriefed participants and they were released. Participants were not compensated and all provided consent. In total, the researcher contacted 26 coaches to participate, and 13 granted permission. Data Analysis Plan A power analysis was conducted prior to collecting data using Soper’s (2013) online calculator for structural equation modeling (SEM). Given the number of latent and observed variables in this study, with a power level of 0.80 and a probability level of .05, the minimum sample size was 268. Therefore, the sample of 312 used for SEM in this study was perceived to be sufficient. To test the hypotheses, AMOS 25.0 (Arbuckle, 2017) was used to examine the data. A two-step model was followed wherein the measurement model was first examined, followed by the structural model (Kline, 2016). This hypothesized model was also compared STIGMA AND COUNSELING INTENTIONS 13 with a plausible alternative model. Finally, mediation through indirect effects via bootstrapping was used to compute bias-corrected percentile confidence intervals, which can be used in cases of multivariate nonnormality (Preacher & Hayes, 2008; Shrout & Bulger, 2002). SEM was used to test the three hypotheses that public and social network stigma will be associated with self stigma, that the relationship of these two stigmas with intentions will be mediated through self stigma and attitudes, and finally that self-stigma will negatively relate to attitudes and attitudes will positively relate to intentions. The goodness-of-fit for the models was assessed using the comparative fit index (CFI), incremental fit index (IFI), root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA), and the standardized root mean residual (SRMR). The guidelines put forth by Hu and Bentler (1999) for good fit were utilized: CFI and IFI ≥ .95, RMSEA ≤ .06, and SRMR ≤ .08. To answer the first research question, a logistic regression was used to test the predictive validity of the variables on previous help-seeking experience. Gender was entered in the first step because it is known to relate to help-seeking, and all three forms of stigma, attitudes, and intentions were entered in step two. Finally, to answer the second research question related to help-seeking topics, descriptive statistics and frequencies were calculated using SPSS. The alpha level for all analyses was set at .05. Item parcels. All scales used in the structural model were unidimensional, which eliminated the possibility of using subscales to represent the latent variable. Thus, to reduce the total number of parameters and improve model fit, parcels were created to represent each latent variable following steps outlined by Russell, Kahn, Spoth, and Altmaier (1998). The scales for public stigma and social network stigma both contained five items, so two parcels were created for each. The scales for self-stigma and attitudes each contained ten items and were given three parcels. Because the intentions scale was only three items, each item was used to represent the STIGMA AND COUNSELING INTENTIONS 14 latent variable. To create necessary parcels, an exploratory factor analysis fit to a one-factor solution was run for the required measures. The factor loadings were balanced on parcels in a way that each parcel would be approximately equal. This was done by alternating highest and lowest loadings on each parcel (Russell et al., 1998). Results Data Screening Initially, 334 surveys were returned out of a possible 336 participants. Six failed the attention check and were subsequently deleted (Spiker & Hammer, 2018). These 328 participants were eligible for the secondary analysis regarding help-seeking topics. This analysis did not rely on statistical assumptions and only required responses to each of the individual items. However, for the main analysis, further cleaning was required. Six additional participants were deleted because they did not complete at least one entire scale, not including the MHSIS. Parent (2013) and Garriot et al. (2017) recommend deleting participants who complete less than 80% of a scale. Parent (2013) further recommended deletion if the overall sample was going to be negligible and under 5%. The participants deleted from the current study did not complete any of the items on a particular scale, falling well under the 80% range. Additionally, Hammer and Spiker (2018) state that a mean should not be calculated for individuals who do not complete all three items on the MHSIS, which resulted in eight deletions. This left 314 participants to examine missingness and statistical assumptions. Overall, there were 16 missing values out of a total of 10,362 values. Percentage of missingness ranged from 0.3-1.3%. Due to such low missingness, values were replaced using expectation maximization (Schlomer, Bauman, & Card, 2010). Next, steps outlined by Tabachnick and Fidell (2013) were followed for examining outliers and assumptions. All variables appeared to be normally distributed, although the STIGMA AND COUNSELING INTENTIONS 15 skewness ratio for social network stigma exceeded 3.29, suggesting possible nonnormality (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2013). However, according to Byrne (2016), extreme kurtosis is more concerning for SEM, and the skewness values were not above the threshold indicating problematic nonnormality. As a result, to ease interpretation, the variable was left untransformed. There was one univariate outlier with a z-score above 3.29 that was deleted, and one multivariate outlier with a Mahalanobis distance value exceeding the critical value for the degrees of freedom in this study, and was subsequently deleted. This meant that 312 participants were included in the SEM and logistic regression analyses. The data met all other multivariate assumptions. The last step was to check for multivariate normality, and Mardia’s coefficient was 9.46, suggesting mild multivariate nonnormality (Byrne, 2016). Preliminary Analyses Means, standard deviations, and correlations were examined between the variables included in the SEM and logistic regression analyses. These values can be seen in Table 2. The correlations between all variables were significant and in the expected direction. The strongest relationship was between attitudes and intentions, r = .61, p < .001, and the weakest was between social network stigma and intentions, r = -.12, p = .04. Relationships Between Stigma, Attitudes, and Intentions The measurement model provided good fit to the data, χ2(55, N = 312) = 109.19, p < .01, CFI = .98, RMSEA = .05 [90% CI = .04, .07], IFI = .98, SRMR = .04. All items loaded significantly on their observed factors, with loadings ranging from β = .56 to .97. Table 3 displays the full values from the measurement model. Overall, the goodness-of-fit and the loadings suggested that the latent variables were adequately measured. STIGMA AND COUNSELING INTENTIONS 16 The structural model was examined next. The researcher first tested the hypothesized model with public and social network stigma as exogenous variables whose relationship with intentions was mediated through self-stigma and attitudes. This model demonstrated good fit to the data, χ2(60, N = 312) = 119.75, p < .01, CFI = .98, RMSEA = .06 [90% CI = .04, .07], IFI = .98, SRMR = .05. This model accounted for 47% of the variance in self-stigma, 41% of the variance in attitudes, and 50% of the variance in intentions. This model can be seen in Figure 1. Of note, all hypothesized pathways were significant, except for the one between social network stigma and self-stigma (β = -.02, p = .83). Next, a plausible alternative model (Kline, 2016) was tested, where public and social network stigma each had a direct path to intentions. This partially mediated model also demonstrated good fit, χ2(58, N = 312) = 118.34, p < .01, CFI = .98, RMSEA = .06 [90% CI = .04, .07], IFI = .98, SRMR = .05. The original pathways all remained significant, but the two new direct pathways from public and social network stigma to intentions were not significant. A test to compare the two models found that they fit the data equally, χ2(2, N = 312) = 1.41, p = .49. Given that the additional pathways were not significant, the original, smaller parsimonious model was utilized to test indirect effects. Indirect effects. To calculate indirect effects, 5000 bias-corrected bootstrap samples were requested using AMOS. As shown in Table 4, all indirect effects in the model were significant with the exception of any pathways that included social network stigma. In addition to the AMOS output for significance, the 95% confidence intervals for the pathways deemed significant did not contain zero, confirming that they are significant (Shrout & Bulger, 2002). Predicting Previous Help-Seeking STIGMA AND COUNSELING INTENTIONS 17 To answer the first research question, the researcher conducted a binary logistic regression using the measured variables as predictors of previous help-seeking history. An additional assumption for logistic regression includes testing the linearity of the logit, and this assumption was met. Results from this regression analysis are seen in Table 5. The model was not significant after only including gender in step one, but the full model was significant, χ2(6, N = 310) = 28.19, p < .001. The Hosmer-Lemeshow test for this model indicated good fit, χ2(8) = 5.63, p = .69. As seen in the table, self-stigma (Expβ = 2.28, p = .01) and attitudes (Expβ = 3.76, p = .001) significantly predicted previous mental health service use. These odds ratios both suggest that as the individual scored higher in self-stigma or attitudes, they were more likely to have previously sought mental health services. Help-Seeking Topics To answer the second research question, the researcher compiled means and standard deviations for each variable on the ISCI. Overall, drug problems, depression, and excessive alcohol use were the highest rated issues for which student-athletes were likely to seek help. The lowest rated topics were concerns about sexuality, difficulty with friends, and body image. When split by gender, the results remained primarily the same. For women, the highest ranked topics were anxiety, depression, and drug problems, whereas the lowest ranked were concerns about sexuality, difficulty with friends, and difficulty with sleeping. For men, the highest and lowest rated topics were identical to the overall sample, although the order varied for the lowest ranked. Body image was the second lowest ranked topic, followed by difficulty with friends at third. The results for all 20 items on this scale can be seen in Table 6. Discussion STIGMA AND COUNSELING INTENTIONS 18 The purpose of the current study was to explore the role of various stigmas on intentions to seek counseling and how these factors were associated with previous help-seeking experience. An additional aim of this study was to determine which topics student-athletes are most and least willing to seek help for professionally. The researcher hypothesized that public stigma and social network stigma would be positively associated with self-stigma. In turn, self-stigma would be negatively associated with attitudes toward counseling, and attitudes would then be positively associated with intentions to seek counseling. Further, it was hypothesized that all indirect effects would be significant. There were no hypotheses for the research questions. Overall, the hypotheses were mostly supported. Help-Seeking Intentions and Behavior Previous researchers have identified stigma as having a strong association with attitudes toward help-seeking in college athletes (Bird, Chow, et al., 2018; Wahto et al., 2016). Specifically, public stigma, social network stigma, and self-stigma have all been linked with counseling attitudes, with self-stigma having the strongest link (Bird, Chow, et al., 2018; Hilliard et al., 2018; Wahto et al., 2016). In the current study, social network stigma was not significantly associated with self-stigma. The overall low scores and restricted range of responses of social network stigma may have contributed to its lack of significance. Alternatively, it is possible that contemporary athletes receive more positive messages from teammates and coaches related to mental health help-seeking than in the past and thus these beliefs are not being internalized in the form of self-stigma. However, public stigma, self stigma, and attitudes were related to intentions. This aligns with the findings of a recent study of male college student-athletes, where self-stigma and attitudes were associated with intentions (Ramaeker & Petrie, 2019). This suggests that those with more positive attitudes toward seeking STIGMA AND COUNSELING INTENTIONS 19 help will also endorse greater intentions to seek mental health counseling if necessary. When comparing the overall levels of stigma and attitudes to other studies of student-athletes, there are minimal differences (Bird, Chow, et al., 2018; Hilliard et al., 2018; Wahto et al., 2016). The largest difference between means on a measure was 0.21 for public stigma on a 5-point scale (Hilliard et al., 2018). Thus, when interpreting these results within the broader literature, the current sample does not appear to be different from other study populations. These findings support the assertions of the TRA (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980) that more positive attitudes toward a health behavior will result in increased intentions of engaging in that behavior. Subjective norms is another component of the TRA and was measured via public stigma. Public stigma contributed to inform intentions, as seen through the indirect relationship between public stigma and intentions through mediating pathways, including self-stigma, an important variable related to attitudes. The importance of these variables in this theoretical construct was further established when examining predictors of previous help-seeking behavior. Similar to the structural model, more positive attitudes were indicative of the greatest increase in likelihood that an individual had previously sought mental health services. Attitudes have previously been associated with actual service use (ten Have et al., 2010), and in this sample they were the strongest predictor of previous help seeking. This finding is slightly inconsistent with the TRA, where the most proximal measure of behavior (i.e., intentions) should be the strongest predictor. Additionally, there was a strong correlation between attitudes and intentions present in the study. Given this information, future researchers may want to examine the utility of intentions over and above attitudes for examining student-athlete help-seeking behavior. One possibility for why attitudes may have been more important than intentions may be the STIGMA AND COUNSELING INTENTIONS 20 unpredictability associated with intentions. Half of the variance in intentions was accounted for in this study. In the only other study of student-athletes to measure intentions in line with this framework, 38% of the variance in attitudes was accounted for, but only 8% for intentions (Ramaeker & Petrie, 2019). Part of this low variance may be due to the measure of intentions that was used by Ramaeker and Petrie, which is arguably not a good measure of actual help seeking intentions (Hammer & Spiker, 2018). It is difficult for an individual to predict how one might act in a certain situation, which is what intention measures ask participants to do. Given the low number of individuals who were currently seeking help and the scores on the various measures, it appears that the sample in the current study was at fairly low risk. This may have contributed to ambivalent intentions scores. Attitudinal measures, on the other hand, probe what the participant currently believes. This is not to say that intentions measures have no use in examining help-seeking behavior, as multiple meta-analyses have found that they are relatively accurate predictors of behavior (e.g., Armitage & Conner, 2001; Sheppard, Hartwick, & Warshaw, 1988). In fact, in a recent sample of college students, intention was found to predict previous mental health service use, although attitudes were not included in the logistic regression so a comparison could not be made (Li, Denson, & Dorstyn, 2018). In their study, the odds ratio for intentions varied between 1.03-1.04 across various blocks, indicating a fairly weak influence. However, the decision to seek help is often not a fully rational or linear process, and therefore intentions may not always be a strong predictor future behavior. Thus, future research using variables to measure the full TRA model and using the MHSIS as the intentions measure would clarify the relationship between intentions and help-seeking behavior. An unusual finding in this study was that self-stigma was associated with an increased likelihood of having sought services in the past. This is a novel finding that contrasts previous STIGMA AND COUNSELING INTENTIONS 21 studies of help-seeking. It is unknown why this occurred in the present sample, but there are a few potential statistical and practical explanations for this relationship. Levels of self-stigma did not vary between groups of individuals who had or had not previously sought counseling and there was no correlation between self-stigma and previous help-seeking. Further, in post-hoc logistic regressions to explore this finding, self-stigma was only a significant predictor when coupled with attitudes (See Appendix J). Thus, it is possible that attitudes were having a statistical influence on self-stigma and this finding was an anomaly. However, this finding supports the assertions of Schomerus and Angermeyer (2008) that the relationship between attitudes, self-stigma, and help-seeking behavior might not be as clear as previously believed. Regardless, further research is needed to corroborate this result. Practically, one possible explanation is that self-stigma was developed as a response to seeking treatment. No research was located that temporally examined the development of self stigma, and it is possible that negative experiences with a counselor led to increased levels of self-stigma. A second plausible explanation is that the levels of self-stigma was overpowered by other needs of the individuals. Previous researchers have found that individuals who recognize they have a mental health issue or concern are more likely to endorse greater levels of self stigma (e.g., Corrigan & Watson, 2002; Jones, Keeling, Thandi, & Greenberg, 2015). Further, some individuals reject the meaning of the self-stigma, even if they possess it (Corrigan & Watson, 2002). Therefore, it is possible that the student-athletes in the current study who had previously sought mental health services were aware of their concerns, which led to increased levels of self-stigma. However, as student-athletes, they might have also recognized that their mental health influences their performance. A previous study has confirmed this as one reason why student-athletes sought mental health services (Bird, Chow, & Cooper, 2018). With the STIGMA AND COUNSELING INTENTIONS 22 desire to be as healthy as possible to compete at their highest level, their athletic identity or competitive desires may have played a more prominent role in the decision to seek help, negating the negative effects of self-stigma. However, this is currently speculation. Future examination of the temporal associations of self-stigma and other help-seeking related variables would clarify this relationship. Help-Seeking Topics The second research question was designed to assess the topics for which student-athletes report being most willing to seek help, ranking them from most to least likely. The results indicated that overall, student-athletes would be most likely to seek help for drug problems, depression, and excessive alcohol use and least likely to seek help for concerns regarding sexuality, difficulties with friends, and body image. These results were similar across gender as well, except that anxiety was rated as highest for women, eliminating excessive alcohol use, and difficulty sleeping was the lowest rated, eliminating body image concerns. These results fall in stark contrast to the preferences of the student-athletes in Naoi et al. (2011). In their study, mental health concerns and alcohol and drug issues ranked ninth and tenth, respectively, out of a list of ten items. However, the differences in methodology explain this inconsistency. The participants in Naoi et al. (2011) were asked to rate preferences for topics when meeting with a sport psychology consultant. In the current study, participants responded to a list of topics for which people often seek counseling. Therefore, it was apparent that these issues would be discussed with a mental health professional and not a sport psychology consultant. This aligns with previous research that has found that student-athletes display preferences for professionals based on match regarding their particular concern (Maniar et al., 2001). Thus, it makes sense that the student-athletes reported high levels of willingness to seek STIGMA AND COUNSELING INTENTIONS 23 help for drug and alcohol use and depression with a counselor, but did not prefer to discuss these issues with a sport psychology consultant (Naoi et al., 2011). Interestingly, seeking counseling for athletic performance was rated fairly low in this sample, which further indicates that the match with the professional might be an important indicator of their intentions to seek help for a particular issue. The issues rated most highly in this study have also been identified as important mental health concerns that student-athletes face (Gavrilova & Donohue, 2018). These findings also broadly mirror the results from a large-scale study of presenting concerns in college counseling centers, where the top three concerns for athletes were anxiety, stress, and depression (Pérez Rojas et al., 2017). However, alcohol and drug use was not included in their ranking system, so it is not known how many athletes presented with those concerns. Nevertheless, the high willingness to seek help for drug or alcohol issues is a promising step forward, as these are often deeply stigmatized issues. One possible explanation for the high rankings for these topics could be that the majority of the sample came from a Christian affiliated school with a strict drug and alcohol use policy. This environmental factor may have led to a greater willingness to seek help for those particular topics. Comparisons between the help-seeking topics scale and other student athlete populations cannot be made. Equally important to the highest rated topics are those that were ranked low amongst the athlete group. Although student-athletes could benefit from seeking mental health services for all items on the scale, the reasons for these three being lo

Yo, I Like Your Walk-Up Song": Music Integration in Professional Baseball Gamedays"Yo, I Like Your Walk-Up Song": Music Integration in Professional Baseball Gamedays Seth Swary sds0021@mix.wvu.edu Follow this and additional works at: https://researchrepository.wvu.edu/etd Part of the Applied Behavior Analysis Commons, and the Sports Studies Commons Recommended Citation Swary, Seth, ""Yo, I Like Your Walk-Up Song": Music Integration in Professional Baseball Gamedays" (2020). Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports. 7677. https://researchrepository.wvu.edu/etd/7677 This Dissertation is protected by copyright and/or related rights. It has been brought to you by the The Research Repository @ WVU with permission from the rights-holder(s). You are free to use this Dissertation in any way that is permitted by the copyright and related rights legislation that applies to your use. For other uses you must obtain permission from the rights-holder(s) directly, unless additional rights are indicated by a Creative Commons license in the record and/ or on the work itself. This Dissertation has been accepted for inclusion in WVU Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports collection by an authorized administrator of The Research Repository @ WVU. For more information, please contact researchrepository@mail.wvu.edu. Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports 2020 "Yo, I Like Your Walk-Up Song": Music Integration in Professional Baseball Gamedays "Yo, I Like Your Walk-Up Song": Music Integration in Professional Baseball Gamedays Seth Swary Follow this and additional works at: https://researchrepository.wvu.edu/etd Part of the Applied Behavior Analysis Commons, and the Sports Studies Commons “Yo, I Like Your Walk-Up Song”: Music Integration in Professional Baseball Gamedays Seth Swary, MA Dissertation submitted to the College of Physical Activity and Sport Sciences at West Virginia University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology Sam Zizzi, Ed.D., Co-Chair Jack Watson II, Ph.D., Co-Chair Jesse Michel, Ph.D. Ashley Coker-Cranney, Ph.D. Ed Jacobs, Ph.D. College of Physical Activity and Sport Sciences Department of Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology Morgantown, West Virginia July 2020 Keywords: sport psychology, emotion regulation, baseball, sport performance, performance enhancement, qualitative Copyright 2020 Seth D. Swary Abstract “Yo, I Like Your Walk-Up Song”: Music Integration in Professional Baseball Gamedays Seth Swary, MA During competition, athletes are consistently regulating their own emotions (Friesen et al., 2013a) and the emotions of their teammates (Tamminen et al., 2016). Athletes have identified music as a strategy used for both intrapersonal (Lane, Davis, & Devonport, 2011) and interpersonal emotion regulation (Friesen et al., 2015), while also using music for association/dissociation, enhancing performance, facilitating flow, and improving their qualitative experiences (Gabana et al., 2019). Though theories have been proposed on athletes’ individual (Bishop, Karageorghis, & Loizou, 2007) and group music use (Karageorghis et al., 2018), they are yet to be widely applied to other sports. Further examination is thus still needed to better understand the group-level uses of music and the lived experiences of athletes listening to music, and to further develop theories. Researchers in the present study utilized a descriptive phenomenological psychological method (Giorgi, Giorgi, & Morley, 2017), interviewing nine professional baseball players on how they experience music on a gameday. Results are divided into sections focusing on individual, team, and stadium listening, then compared to theories on emotion regulation (Campo et al., 2017; Gross, 1998), music in sport (Bishop, Karageorghis, & Loizou, 2007; Karageorghis et al., 2018), and relevant theories in the field of sport psychology (e.g., Martin, Moritz, & Hall, 1999). Implications for athletes, coaches, sport psychology professionals, and professional baseball organizations are discussed. BASEBALL MUSIC INTEGRATION iii Acknowledgements I quickly realized this section would be the hardest to write of the document as I fear that it will never be good enough to capture my gratitude for all of those who have helped me along the way. This document is a culmination of a journey that has taken me across the country and united me with people from around the world, and I am incredibly thankful for everyone along the journey. Here goes nothing… To my family – though you may not understand what I do or why, you have loved me and supported me nonetheless. Thank you! To those I met at OWU – thank you for showing me a new way to look at the world and helping me to grow as a person. To those I met in Denver – thank you for setting me on a path in this field, giving me the tools to succeed, and for believing in me. All of the faculty and friends at DU, and friends from Parks & Rec, thank you for giving me a new home. To those I met in West Virginia – I never thought I would say that! Thank you to all of the faculty, staff, and friends I have met over the past 4 years. I have grown more than I thought I ever would both professionally and personally. My time in WV brought me close friendships, two kitties, and an engagement. Thank you! To my colleagues at Oakland University – thank you for believing in me before I even finished my degree, and thanks for hiring me! For those involved in this project – Dr. Watson, thank you for always challenging me and pushing me. Dr. Jacobs, thank you for always believing in me and supporting me. Dr. Michel, thank you for encouraging me to think beyond the walk-up song and giving invaluable support along the way. Dr. Coker-Cranney, thank you for being a qualitative methods guru and giving me the knowledge and support to do this study well. And Dr. Zizzi, thank you for guiding (and putting up with!) me through these past few years. Thank you to my research team (Tommy, Kate, & Erika) for being so willing to help and providing thoughts and insights that have made this project so much better. Last, but not least, my honorary committee member, Dr. Zenzi Huysmans, whose support and feedback are more appreciated than I could ever say. Finally, to Lauren, Louise, and Bellamy – the aforementioned kitties and engagement, you are my why. You make me want to be a better person every day, and I am able to continue growing and pursuing my dreams because I have you with me. Thank you, and I love you! All of this is to say, though I still don’t know much, the one thing I know is that I am loved. “When you are loved, you can do anything in creation. When you are loved, there’s no need at all to understand what’s happening, because everything happens within you.” -Paulo Coelho, The Alchemist BASEBALL MUSIC INTEGRATION iv Table of Contents Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 1 Emotion Regulation in Sport ............................................................................................ 1 Music for Emotion Regulation in Sport .......................................................................... 3 Purpose ............................................................................................................................... 5 Methods .......................................................................................................................................... 5 Research Design and Sampling Approach ...................................................................... 6 Philosophical Assumptions ............................................................................................... 6 Procedures .......................................................................................................................... 6 Data Analysis ..................................................................................................................... 8 Research Quality and Rigor ........................................................................................... 10 Results ........................................................................................................................................... 11 Individual Listening ........................................................................................................ 11 Team Listening ................................................................................................................ 16 Stadium ............................................................................................................................. 20 Discussion ..................................................................................................................................... 26 Music Selection and Use .................................................................................................. 26 Music for Emotion Regulation ....................................................................................... 29 Music and Sport Psychology ........................................................................................... 29 Practical Implications ..................................................................................................... 30 Limitations and Future Directions ................................................................................. 31 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................ 32 References .................................................................................................................................... 33 Appendix A: Figures .................................................................................................................... 38 Appendix B: Descriptive Phenomenological Psychological Method .......................................... 40 Appendix C: Email/Message Templates ...................................................................................... 42 Appendix D: Interview Probe Questions ...................................................................................... 44 Appendix E: Participant Demographics Table ............................................................................. 45 Appendix F: Self-Reflexive Statement ........................................................................................ 46 Appendix G: Analytic Memos ..................................................................................................... 49 Appendix H: Extended Review of Literature ............................................................................... 63 Emotional Intelligence in Sport ...................................................................................... 64 Emotion Regulation in Sport .......................................................................................... 71 BASEBALL MUSIC INTEGRATION v Intrapersonal emotion regulation .................................................................................. 73 Interpersonal emotion regulation .................................................................................. 83 Music in Sport .................................................................................................................. 91 Conclusion and Future Recommendations ................................................................. 108 Extended References ..................................................................................................... 110 BASEBALL MUSIC INTEGRATION 1 “Yo, I Like Your Walk-Up Song”: Music Integration in Professional Baseball Gamedays Introduction Emotions are a prevalent aspect of the sport experience as athletes prepare themselves for practice and competition, and to cope with the stress associated with pressures to perform. Athletes, then, are constantly experiencing various emotions and engaging in strategies to regulate their own emotions (Lane, Davis, & Devonport, 2011) and those of their teammates (Friesen et al., 2013b). One’s ability to recognize and understand emotions, express emotions, and regulate emotions is also referred to as emotional intelligence (EI; Mayer & Salovey, 1997). Athletes with higher scores on measurements of EI report more pleasant emotions prior to competition (Lane et al., 2010) and use psychological skills more frequently (see Laborde, Dosseville, & Allen, 2016 for a review). In regard to objective measures of athletic performance, research indicated that EI has a moderate influence (7-23%) on pitching performance (Zizzi, Deaner, & Hirschorn, 2003), total games played by professional hockey players (Perlini & Halverson, 2006), and cricket team performance (Crombie, Lombard, & Noakes, 2009). Emotion Regulation in Sport Emotion regulation, one aspect of emotional intelligence, has hedonic (i.e., increase pleasant emotions/decrease unpleasant emotions) and instrumental (i.e., facilitate the pursuit of a goal) functions (Tamir, Mitchell, & Gross, 2008). Instrumental emotion regulation may be particularly relevant to sport performance given the individualized relationship between emotions and performance, as conceptualized in the Individual Zones of Optimal Functioning model (IZOF; Hanin, 2000). IZOF posits that athletes regulate emotions to facilitate successful performance more so than to maximize pleasant moods. In a recent study examining the instrumental emotion regulation strategies of athletes, Lane and colleagues (2011) found that BASEBALL MUSIC INTEGRATION 2 athletes’ choices about increasing anger and/or anxiety was influenced by their meta-beliefs about the impact of emotions on performance. Additionally, the use of effective emotion regulation strategies led to winning 54-100% of the following points in a small study of table tennis players (χ2=3.99-37.59; Martinent et al., 2015) and helped to prevent choking under pressure in a putting task regardless of arousal level (η2=0.41; Balk et al., 2013). While emotion regulation has been a common topic in the field of sport, exercise, and performance psychology (SEPP) in recent years, most researchers have focused on intrapersonal regulation (i.e., regulating own emotions; see Campo et al., 2017). A recent shift in the literature has occurred, however, in which researchers have recognized the impact of social and interpersonal processes, such as talking to teammates and communal coping, on emotion regulation (Friesen et al., 2013a; 2013b; 2015; Tamminen & Crocker, 2013; Tamminen et al., 2016). The process model of emotion regulation (PMER; Gross, 1998) has been commonly used in other areas of psychology but has received less attention in the context of sports (Campo et al., 2017). According to the model, individuals are proposed to regulate emotions through situation selection, situation modification, attentional deployment, cognitive change, and/or response modulation. The first four of these five “families” of emotion regulation strategies are considered antecedent-focused, in that they take place in preparation for the emotional response, while the last family is response-focused, occurring after the emotional response to alter specific emotions being experienced (Gross, 1998). In a recent two-part study on rugby players’ use of emotion regulation strategies, Campo and colleagues (2017) found support for each of the five families proposed in the process model. Additionally, within each of the families, strategies were further divided into self-regulation and interpersonal regulation, which can again be separated into co regulation and extrinsic regulation. An examination of participants’ motives for regulating BASEBALL MUSIC INTEGRATION 3 emotion were revealed to be egoistic (for personal benefit), altruistic (for the benefit of a teammate), or both. These results, along with findings from Friesen et al. (2013a) that athletes’ personal emotions informed their decision-making, emphasize the importance of the individual’s own emotional states and meta-beliefs on his/her decisions about regulating the emotions of teammates. One strategy cited by athletes in the study that fits within several families in the PMER was music listening. Music for Emotion Regulation in Sport Athletes report commonly experiencing prevalent emotional reactions to music (Laukka & Quick, 2011), and researchers in sport psychology have already identified music as an effective intrapersonal (Bishop, Karageorghis, & Loizou, 2007; Elliott, Polman, & Taylor, 2014; Lane, Davis, & Devonport, 2011) and interpersonal emotion regulation strategy (Friesen et al., 2015). In a recent study by Middleton, Ruiz, and Robazza (2017), a 5-week intervention tying music selection with psychoeducation about the IZOF model (Hanin, 2000) helped to improve swimmers’ perceived ability to regulate their preperformance states and had a positive impact on the perceived effectiveness of their preperformance routines. Further, Gabana and colleagues (2019) found that professional golfers use music as an associative and dissociative mechanism, as well as to regulate their energy/arousal levels, regulate mood, enhance mental performance states, facilitate flow, and improve their qualitative experience. Golfers reported listening to music with others and alone, and commonly did so during their pre-performance routines and while practicing. Terry and colleagues (2020) sought to quantify the effects of music in the contexts of exercise and sport in a meta-analysis, finding that music significantly influences affective responses (g=0.48), ratings of perceived exertion (g=0.22), and overall performance (g=0.31). BASEBALL MUSIC INTEGRATION 4 Similar to the trends seen in the sport emotion regulation literature, the bulk of research on the impact of music in athletic domains has been focused on the intrapersonal impact on athletes in individual sports. Bishop et al. (2007) proposed a theory of music use through interviews with tennis players and stated that aspects such as the athlete’s extra-musical associations with the song, family and peer influences, film soundtracks/music videos, acoustical properties, and level of identification with the lyrics or the artist determine an athlete’s pool of emotive music from which to choose. The athlete’s selection of a song is then mediated by situational and emotional content/intensity factors. After the athlete selects a song, the actual emotional intensity experienced is mediated by the time between listening and performance, the way in which it is delivered (e.g., headphones, sound system), and modifiable musical properties (e.g., tempo, intensity). The latest grounded theory, proposed by Karageorghis and colleagues (2018) through interviews with soccer players, extends the previous theory of music use to the group level. In their theory, Karageorghis et al. suggest that music components and extra-musical associations determine a team’s pool of emotive music, with the selection mediated by group factors (music selector, group cohesion, team atmosphere), task-related factors, and personal factors. Each of these aspects then influence the effects of music on group cohesion, team performance gains, and group psychological benefits (e.g., opponent intimidation, residual effects). While a solid theoretical founding exists for music as an individual performance enhancement technique (e.g., Gabana et al., 2019) and intrapersonal emotion regulation strategy (e.g., Bishop et al., 2007) in sport, additional research is still needed to better understand the impact of music on group performance and for interpersonal emotion regulation. For example, are the benefits to team sport athletes limited to emotional regulation or do these athletes endorse BASEBALL MUSIC INTEGRATION 5 other uses? Further, the group music use theory proposed by Karageorghis and colleagues (2018) has yet to be applied to athletes participating in a team sport other than soccer and additional research is still needed to understand how music use is experienced at the group level. The aim of the present research, then, was to explore the experience of athletes selecting and using music in the context of a team sport and how they experience music individually and as a team for regulating emotions, enhancing performance, and influencing other team factors (e.g., team cohesion). Research Design and Sampling Approach Methods A descriptive phenomenological approach (Giorgi, Giorgi, & Morley, 2017) was used to understand players’ lived experiences and meanings associated with music throughout a typical gameday. The researchers purposively sampled professional baseball players as the sport offers a unique context in which baseball is a team sport but consists of a series of individual performances. Further, music is played before and throughout games, including the unique aspect of walk-up songs in which a player selects the song he wants to be played throughout the stadium immediately prior to his performance. The researchers interviewed a total of 9 participants, fitting within the 8-12 range generally considered appropriate for phenomenological studies (Creswell, 2013). While initially hoping to achieve maximum variation (Patton, 2002) with participant demographics, time limits and the COVID-19 pandemic led to the authors shifting focus primarily to convenience. Participants identified as White (n = 8) and Hispanic (n = 1), ranged in age from 19 to 26 (M = 23.5), and had an average of 2.4 years’ experience playing at the collegiate level and 3.0 years’ experience playing professional baseball. Four of the participants were assigned to the AA level of their organization at the time of data collection, BASEBALL MUSIC INTEGRATION 6 two were assigned to Class A-Advanced (“High A”), one in Class A (“Low A”), one in Class A short season, and one at the Rookie level. Participants represented a variety of positions including first baseman (n = 2), catcher (n = 1), relief pitcher (n = 5), and starting pitcher (n = 1). Philosophical Assumptions The researchers approached the study from a constructivist paradigm, accepting the assumptions of a relativist ontology (i.e., existence of multiple realities that are locally and specifically constructed individually) and a transactional/subjectivist epistemology (i.e., the researcher and participant work together to co-construct knowledge; Guba & Lincoln, 2005). This paradigm aligns strongly with the approach of the descriptive phenomenological psychological method as described by Giorgi, Giorgi, and Morley (2017), in which researchers aim to reduce participants’ experience with a specific phenomenon down to its core meaning or essence from a psychological perspective. Further, the researchers employed strategies outlined by Bevan (2014) to conduct a descriptive phenomenological interview, allowing the researchers to explore the phenomenon of music listening from multiple realities and co-construct knowledge by actively participating in interviews. Procedures Following approval by the West Virginia University institutional review board, the authors recruited participants through connections with coaches and team mental skills consultants, who served as gatekeepers for this study, on professional baseball teams. The first author contacted mental skills coaches of four different professional baseball organizations and a position coach from a fifth organization, with only one contact declining participation. The coaches and mental skills consultants of the four organizations who agreed to help were sent an email providing a brief overview of the study, information on what participation would entail, BASEBALL MUSIC INTEGRATION 7 and contact information for the first author. Contacts then forwarded the information to players within their respective organizations and interested players contacted the first author to schedule an interview to be conducted via Zoom. One contact from the first organization declined participation, while four players each from two of the organizations and two players from the fourth contacted the first author to be interviewed. One player did not complete data collection after scheduling the interview. As the interviews took place virtually, participants provided verbal consent in lieu of signed documentation to take part in the study. In line with descriptive phenomenological interviewing proposed by Bevan (2014), the interviewers asked descriptive and structural questions to address the themes of contextualization (i.e., understanding the phenomenon in its naturally experienced context), apprehending the phenomenon (i.e., understanding the typical attitude/approach to the phenomenon), and clarifying the phenomenon (i.e., imagining how the experience of the phenomenon would change in various contexts/circumstances). In line with the constructivist paradigm, Bevan (2014) argued that one question alone is insufficient for capturing the multiple ways of expressing one’s experience and interviewers must be prepared to ask additional descriptive questions. The interviewers thus asked each participant the same open-ended question (i.e., “Tell me about your experience with music on a baseball gameday.”) to provide contextual information and identify potential areas for further inquiry, with follow-up probes being used to achieve deeper descriptions, structure, quality, and clarity of the participants’ experience (e.g., “Tell me what would happen if you were not able to listen to music in the way that you typically do,” “Tell me about the effect(s) you think music has on your team as a group.”). While a general list of potential probe questions was developed to assist in the consistency of the research (Bevan, 2014), probe questions were only used if first prompted by the participant and questions were BASEBALL MUSIC INTEGRATION 8 adapted for each individual conversation. Interviews ranged from 24 to 50 minutes in length (M = 33 minutes), were audio-recorded, and were transcribed verbatim by the first author and an undergraduate research assistant. During transcription, all names were replaced with pseudonyms and identifying information was removed to protect participants’ confidentiality. Data Analysis Analysis of the transcripts followed the five-step analysis outlined by Giorgi and colleagues (2017) for descriptive phenomenological psychological studies. A primary research team, consisting of two students and two recent graduates of a doctoral program for Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology (SEPP), took a collaborative approach to analysis as the relativist ontology recognizes multiple realities, thus multiple perspectives of the text were sought. The first step included the four members of the primary research team reading the entire transcripts in order to gain an overall sense of the description, followed by the second step in which the primary research team assumed the attitude of phenomenological psychological reduction (i.e., “view the lived experiences as manifestations of the lived meanings and values expressed by concrete human subjects,” Giorgi et al., 2017, p. 181). Once the phenomenological psychological reduction was assumed, the third step consisted of the researchers, while rereading transcripts, separating the experience into meaning units by marking slashes when he/she subjectively experienced a shift in meaning. Meaning units were then copied into analysis spreadsheets, with each cell representing a unique meaning unit. All data were included in this stage to avoid favoring of some data over others. Within the fourth step, the researchers transformed the meaning units identified in step three in phenomenologically and psychologically sensitive ways in order to generalize the meaning for comparison with the other descriptions. Some transformations took place once while others occurred several times BASEBALL MUSIC INTEGRATION 9 depending on the psychological richness of the unit, and each transformation was presented in the analysis spreadsheets to allow others to follow clearly. Lastly, the researchers reviewed the final transformations in the fifth step to determine key meanings and what is essential to the description of the phenomenon. An example of this process would be Randy’s statement regarding the American and Latino/Hispanic athletes playing music in the clubhouse that, “I think that’s… good for both sides and they’re kind of bringing and we are kind of sharing some of our [music] with them. And at the end of the day that doesn’t do nothing but help us grow as teammates I feel like” being identified as an initial meaning unit. This unit was first transformed to, “He thinks music in the clubhouse is good to share culture amongst teammates and helps them to grow as teammates,” and then again to, “Music can be used for sharing culture and increasing team cohesion.” Each member of the primary group completed the steps separately over a span of eight weeks, meeting for weekly debriefs to discuss thoughts on and questions about the data. Following the fifth step, the primary team then discussed the essential factors identified in each individual interview and compared the findings across interviews and members. An SEPP faculty member served as a critical friend following the fourth step, and an additional SEPP faculty member served as a final critical friend for the fifth step. As emphasized in the descriptive phenomenological psychological approach (Giorgi et al., 2017), the authors then compared the final data to that of existing theoretical models of athlete music use (Karageorghis et al., 2018), general models of emotion regulation (Gross, 1998), and emotion regulation in sport (Campo et al., 2017). Suitability of this approach to analysis was gleaned from similar data analyses used in recent publications in the field of sport psychology (e.g., Coker-Cranney et al., 2017; Grindstaff, Wrisberg, & Ross, 2010; Wadey et al., 2013). BASEBALL MUSIC INTEGRATION 10 Research Quality and Rigor As the researchers adopted a constructivist paradigm, a standardized list of criteria (e.g., Tracy, 2010) for judging the quality of qualitative inquiries was not applicable (see Smith & McGannon, 2017). Instead, constructivist researchers have been encouraged to select criteria relevant to the purpose and context of the study (Smith & McGannon, 2017). The researchers in the present study worked to ensure rigor and quality through several strategies including the creation of self-reflexive statements, conducting a pilot interview, maintaining analytic memos, and the use of critical friends. Prior to analysis, each member of the primary research team created a self-reflexive statement to assist in bracketing, assuming the scientific phenomenological reduction (Giorgi et al., 2017), and to increase dependability in the research through transparency. To further increase dependability and transparency, each of the steps taken in analysis were recorded and saved (including each transformation) while all members of the primary research team kept analytic memos following each step. Many of the memos described initial reactions to and thoughts about the text, which assisted the research team in bracketing those thoughts and reactions before returning to the data to explore alternative interpretations. To address confirmability, the researchers conducted a pilot interview prior to the study with a collegiate club baseball player and employed the use of critical friends throughout analysis. The inclusion of critical friends acknowledged the possibility of other interpretations of the data and allowed for challenges to interpretations and opportunities for dialogue (Smith & McGannon, 2017). During analysis, the investigators remained open and responsive to the process while employing verification strategies as identified by Morse and colleagues (2002). The researchers selected a descriptive psychological phenomenological method to best align with questions BASEBALL MUSIC INTEGRATION 11 regarding players’ experience with music (i.e., methodological coherence) and interviewed professional baseball players with unique and extensive experience with music (i.e., appropriate sample). Data was concurrently collected and analyzed, while ideas that emerged during analysis were recorded for verification in later interviews (e.g., thinking theoretically). Lastly, proposed theories were used for comparison and new findings helped to further develop said theories. Results Participants described music being integral throughout their gameday experiences. The results were thus divided into three sections representing the levels at which music was used by participants: individually, with the team, and in the stadium. Certain aspects of the music experience (e.g., music in routines, process of selecting music, the purpose of music, the impact of music, and walk-up songs) permeated through every level of use, though they were altered slightly with each level. These levels were not static, but rather overlapped with one another as demonstrated in Figure 1. Individual Listening [Insert Figure 1 here] At the individual level, players described listening to music in their vehicles on the way to and from the stadium (e.g., it “kind of starts like earlier in the day almost. You know, driving to the park.” -Sam; “On the road… I like to listen to music when we all get on the bus and we are on our way to the field.” -Luis) and through headphones on the bus and in the clubhouse/locker room. Participants described choosing music for themselves based on personal preferences, expressing a range of preferences and tastes in music, while also being generally flexible in the type of music to which they listened. Personal music preferences were typically developed through identification with the music through such facets as their memories and associations with BASEBALL MUSIC INTEGRATION 12 certain music, experiences, and cultural backgrounds. Ken conveyed his preference for country music in saying, “my town is like 1,500 people, I mean super small town. A lot of dirt roads, a lot of mountains, like I’m a country boy, and, uh, that music relaxes me, man.” Selection. Players were able to exercise autonomy in their music selections when listening individually, though not always intentionally choosing particular songs. Participants explained the importance of timing in that their music use earlier in the day was typically focused on entertainment and served more as “background noise,” with selections being less intentional (e.g., listening to the radio, putting personal music on shuffle). This music was primarily used as a way of improving the qualitative experience earlier in the day. Music selections then become more intentional and purposeful as the game neared with the overall goal shifting to that of enhancing individual performance. To do so, players selected music they felt would help them with such skills as regulating energy/arousal, regulating emotions, and allocating attention. Purpose. The reason most frequently cited reason for music use was energy/arousal management. Players expressed that music helped them both to decrease and increase energy/arousal levels depending on their individual needs. Using music for energy/arousal regulation was most commonly used immediately prior to performance, with the direction of regulation depending on the players’ perceptions of what will help them best perform. Lee expressed experiencing a decrease in energy/arousal while listening to music, saying, “I will be listening to music for probably about an hour or so… before we have to get out on the field, and I just kinda let that lead me into the game… kind of step out on the field in a relaxed, calm state and just be ready for the game at that point.” Other participants like Dan, however, used music at the same point to increase arousal/energy, noting that he wants to have so much energy that he, “feel[s] like [he] could run through a wall when [he’s] listening to music.” BASEBALL MUSIC INTEGRATION 13 Players also conveyed using music for emotion regulation, most frequently in decreasing feelings of stress and anxiety and increasing feelings of happiness, calmness, inspiration, and confidence. Three participants discussed regulating their emotions by listening to music that triggers memories associated with the desired emotion. Ken mentioned using music to help him tap in to his “happy place,” while Ron summarized this aspect in saying: Certain songs can trigger nostalgia or, you know, past events in our life where this song reminds us of it… there’s a song that, it’s one of my favorite songs, and I’ll listen to it before games all the time because it reminds me of when… I was trying to get a scholarship for college. And this same song was always playing… whenever I was working out or hitting at this sports facility. And at this particular time in my life, I was trying to get back into baseball and… so every time this song would pop up in my playlist or whatever, it reminds me of that time in my life. And it’s truly inspiring because… I think of the song at the point in time to where I was introduced to the song, and now here I am listening to that same song and I’m in my dream scenario, right? Regarding emotion regulation at the individual level, participants primarily referred to using music to elicit a certain emotion rather than match what they are feeling at the time. Another reason identified by participants for using music was to assist in attention management. Participants described using music to help in directing attention to the task at hand (e.g., “leading up to the game, like if I need… if I’m way checked-out, music will kind of check you back in.” -Eric), as well as using it as a form of distraction. Ken discussed this form of music use for lifting weights, saying: That music, it just helps me get in the weight room, get my stuff done. I’m listening to… the pump up music and it kind of just takes my mind away from, “Damnit, I’ve got to go BASEBALL MUSIC INTEGRATION 14 back into the weight room again man, this is going to suck and I know my body is going to feel like hell while I’m going through this workout.” But like when I have that music blasting in the background, it… kind of helps me forget about all that it helps me, uh, like kind of drown out those thoughts. Similar to distracting from fatigue to complete difficult workouts, participants expressed using music to alleviate boredom and get through what can, at times, be repetitive, mundane schedules. Music use was not the same throughout players’ experiences, but rather all participants described their experience with selecting music on a gameday as a learning process. Players expressed changing the music they listen to on gamedays through previous experiences and reflection on associated performance. Lee summarized this learning process from his experience, stating: And I found the higher tempo… more, you know, like hard rap, that kind of stuff, kinda had me a little more on edge and I would get more upset about mistakes instead of just kind of letting them go. Especially since it was just the bullpen, and then I would kind of bring that into my game and if I made a bad pitch or something, I would get really frustrated instead of just focusing on the next pitch and letting it fall by the wayside. And I found when I listen to, you know slower more relaxed music… kind of put me in that mindset. Reflections on how the individual performed after listening to certain music was most often identified as the reason for adapting their song selections. Routine. This learning process, along with the impact of music on energy/arousal regulation, emotion regulation, and attention management, helped players integrate music into their pre-performance routines. Ron stated that he believes “95% of players have some sort of BASEBALL MUSIC INTEGRATION 15 music involved with their daily routine… especially at the field,” a testimonial that was supported by other participants. Max provided an example of his own routine, describing it as, “an hour of music that’s like whatever first. Then, as we get closer, it’s more and more serious of music. Then, it’s just like the last seven minutes is Through the Fire and Flames just because that song is seven minutes long.” While all participants discussed music listening in general as part of their routines, a few other participants also mentioned their routine including a particular selection of songs, exemplified by Sam saying that he, “had… 5-10 songs [he] would listen to before… like, almost pretty much the exact same playlist [he] would listen to before each game.” Similarly, Lee explains that he will, “go through streaks where [he]’ll… have a specific 5 to 8 songs” to which he listens while doing dry runs (a warm-up used by pitchers in which they throw pitches while simulating in-game situations). Participants explained that the music within their pre-performance routines helped to trigger a “performance mindset.” Sam spoke to pre-performance routines, noting, “It’s almost like [Pavlov’s dog]… your mom rings the dinner bell… It’s time for me to get my mindset ready… It’s time to be focused. And for the next… 3 or 4 hours I was pretty much locked in.” He went on to explain the consistency of using his routine, saying: With the music, I was able to listen to it and like almost trick my mind into thinking like it didn’t matter where I was, I was in the same place, you know? It’s still going to be a game at 7 o’clock, or like 5 o’clock, no matter what. If I could listen to some of the songs on the playlist, it’s like some familiar almost feel to every day where I know what’s going to happen. BASEBALL MUSIC INTEGRATION 16 Players discussed using routines to increase the consistency of their performance, with the accessibility and ease of music being particularly helpful in creating a routine for both home and away games. If they were not able to have music, most participants simply discussed finding alternatives to replace music in their routines that, though difficult or potentially less effective, would still help them achieve the desired objective. Lee summarized identifying an alternative, saying: I honestly think I would have to sit in the field and meditate. Because it puts… you at ease, you know, it kind of relaxes you and gives you… like a focused mindlessness. And like… reaching a level… of sereneness or something like that, like I said I would have to go sit by myself and like you know? Like I said meditate, some type of yoga or something, just ‘cause you have to find something to change that mindset to get you focus into the game and like music is a huge component in that. While not necessary for their performance or experience, participants explained that music acts as a quick, accessible, and effective vehicle that can be utilized for various purposes. Team Listening Routine. Participants described team-level music listening in the clubhouse/locker room via a sound system. Music is a constant in the clubhouse from the perspective of the participants, as Ken stated that, “music is always on in the club house. Always, always,” and Lee reported that, “in the clubhouse we usually… they’re usually playing, you know, some kind of music very loud.” Players conveyed music again playing in the clubhouse after games. Music playing in the clubhouse is such a consistent part of the experience that Tom noted, “the locker room and stuff BASEBALL MUSIC INTEGRATION 17 would be really just kind of weird if there was, like, nothing in the background playing. Like that would just be strange. The quiet, yeah, that’d be strange.” Selection. Within the team, participants explained that there is normally a group of 2-3 individuals who rotate having control of the music played over the speaker in the clubhouse, however all players are still able to have some input. As explained by Eric, “you are in a locker room full of outspoken humans. Like, it will happen, someone will yell, ‘Who the hell is on the aux? Change this,’ or whatever it is, so. You’ll get that every now and then.” Participants expressed experiencing a more significant impact of music when they are personally able to be involved in the selection process. Players listening individually were choosing songs based on their personal needs and preferences, while they aimed for more neutral music that would make everyone happy when choosing for the group. Dan, who identified as being one of the individuals responsible for choosing music in the clubhouse for his team, spoke to group music selection in saying, “It is more of a neutral taste that I play with everybody mixed in with a little bit of what I listen to because I’m in in charge, so, I’m going to play what I like, too.” The role of music selector for the group becomes solidified as the season continues depending on which individuals are successful in meeting the needs of the team. This role is typically filled by an older team member who is generally well-liked by teammates. As explained by Tom: I think you have to have like a little bit of a… I don’t know like a swagger. Like you have to be someone… everybody like pretty much likes, you know. And it’s not like gonna be like the guy that like only a few people like. Or like, some people just don’t really like to hang out with or something, you know. They’re not gonna like let them, ‘cause like BASEBALL MUSIC INTEGRATION 18 you’re controlling for everyone. So, it’s gotta be… it’s pretty much someone that like everybody’s like cool with and like okay with him being in charge, I guess. Participants conveyed this role as an important role on the team particularly due to the aspect of having control over part of the experience of teammates. Purpose. Similar to individual listening, participants cited music serving as a way of enhancing team performance through regulating the energy/arousal levels and emotions of the group. Participants described music for team energy/arousal regulation in similar pattern as individually, using calmer, more relaxed music earlier and increase the volume and tempo of the music closer to the beginning of the game. Max spoke to this experience following his team’s daily practice, stating the music being played is, “just relaxing. We just got off the field, um, nothing too crazy too, you know? Something that’s not going to get our energy going too much. Then, as game time gets closer and closer, some higher energy stuff.” Many of the participants additionally discussed the use of music in the clubhouse for team emotion regulation. Dan explained music “that gets everyone in the right mood, it really has an effect on just your feelings.” This music can also indirectly affect some participants through their teammates. Ron explained that, “even if you’re not, you know, a particular fan of a certain genre of music that’s playing on the loudspeaker, let’s say there’s a group of guys on the team that are, and they start rocking out to it. Now, okay, you can start rolling with it… It’s contagious.” Sam spoke to these factors for enhancing team performance, summarizing: When everyone’s kind of listening to the same song and you have like… a good vibe throughout the locker room it’s… it’s like everyone’s kind of bonding to the same thing. You’re kind of all going the same direction… the more people you can get going in the BASEBALL MUSIC INTEGRATION 19 same direction on the team, like kind of the better you’re gonna be in the end. Like whether you win or lose it’s one thing, but definitely it gives you a better chance to win. Music was not perceived by the participants as an advantage in and of itself, but rather a tool that could help to improve chances of winning through these strategies. Participants also identified music in the locker room as salient for the purpose of improving team chemistry, explaining that music helped to make it easier to interact with one another, allowed teammates to share their respective cultures, and provided insight into teammates’ personalities. Tom mentioned bonding with teammates by discussing music in the clubhouse, stating it, “has positive effects because everyone kind of talks about that music. Like, ‘Oh my gosh, this guy’s playing this again.’ Or like, ‘Oh, I love whenever he’s on the aux, he’s got some good music.’” Several participants specifically identified music in the clubhouse creating shared experiences that could serve as a bridge for players of different races, cultures, and nationalities to bond as a group. Lee stated the music, “made it easier to socialize with each other, especially… With the language barrier and that kind of thing. Um, just having something loud on in the background makes it a little bit easier to talk to each other, you know? Guys are dancing and that kind of thing, it makes it… more happy and, um, inviting environment I would say.” Ken also spoke this piece, summarizing: And I mean they a lot of [my Latino teammates] don’t understand English, a lot of the American players don’t understand Spanish. So, we kind of… came to an agreement this year, every Latino song we have to play an American song and it’s back and forth and back and forth… but also I think… that’s good for both sides and they’re kind of bringing BASEBALL MUSIC INTEGRATION 20 their culture onto us and we are kind of sharing some of ours with them. And at the end of the day, that doesn’t do nothing but help us grow as teammates I feel like. Another distinction participants learned through group music listening regarding the influence of culture was the different preferences between international Hispanic/Latino players and those from the United States. Hispanic and Latino players were identified as typically listening to more energetic, high-tempo music, and typically did so at a louder volume. Rather than selecting music to elicit certain emotions or energy/arousal levels, participants noted that music after the game was aimed at matching the mood of the team and “setting a tone” for the clubhouse. This selection was largely dependent on the team’s performance outcome. Eric described this factor, noting, “it’s really based on what you do out there on the field. Lose, low… you know, low music puts you in that mood of just saying, ‘We’ll get them next time’ kind of deal. Same thing goes for when you win, it’s just, ‘Alright, we won, we can do whatever we want basically, so let’s crank it up!’” Stadium Listening Selection and Routine. While on the field, participants described listening to music via the stadium’s sound system. Listening to music on the stadium’s sound system occurs during the players’ practices and warm-ups (e.g., batting practice) prior to the game, as well as throughout the game itself. The vast majority of this music is selected by the organization’s staff, with the exception of players’ walk-up/walk-out songs. The interviewees explained that, between innings, music is played throughout the stadium and is commonly tied with promotional material and advertisements, and a similar selection of songs are used by different stadiums and at all levels. Participants noted the routine nature of these playlists as stadiums will typically use the same songs at the same points throughout the game (e.g., “Take Me Out to the Ballgame” after the 7th BASEBALL MUSIC INTEGRATION 21 inning). Many of these songs then become associated with playing and watching baseball in stadiums, tend to be family-friendly, and are used as a way of making the game more enjoyable for fans. Ken spoke to this aspect of the experience, saying: I know in-between innings… they’ll usually play music kinda for the crowd. After, like… while the pitcher is throwing his seven or eight warm up pitches and the infield is taking grounders and stuff waiting for the other team to come hit, that is when you hear the stadium has just a just a fan playlist. And, um, it’s usually got some modern stuff, a lot of throwback, like a lot of 80’s and just baseball ballpark music. I feel like every stadium has that and I… have probably heard that around ball parks so much since I was a little kid… I feel like that is kind of a must at baseball games is to kind of have just these baseball songs, like just old-school stuff. That’s what I have always heard growing up around ball fields. While these songs are not chosen by the players, participants described being able to use the music for similar purposes as when listening by themselves and with their teams. Impact. Several participants explained that music helped them flow with the game of baseball and allocate their attention as needed. Ron summarized this piece of the experience, explaining: With baseball it’s a very… there’s a lot of lapses in action or rest I guess you could say. It’s a very, ‘run as fast as you can and then stop because now you have to wait for the next play to happen,’ you know what I mean? So… there is a lot of down time on the field as well… But while I’m waiting, why not listen to music? Right? Every song has a different beat, every song has a different chorus, whatever… It’s a great distraction to be able to focus in and then focus out. So, you get to kind of zone out with the music while BASEBALL MUSIC INTEGRATION 22 you’re waiting and then boom, once you’re round comes up, you’re focused in again. And we’re taught as baseball players to be able to have that ability to zone in and zone out. Because if you’re trying to focus 100% of the time when there’s 200+ pitches thrown per game, it’s impossible I mean we’re human beings, right? And we only have so long of an attention span. Some participants reiterated the potentially distracting impact of stadium music, though they largely described having momentary distractions when it did occur. As a team, the stadium music again created shared experiences among teammates. In discussing this experience with his teammates, Tom expressed that: We really liked… these like two Dua Lipa songs because they kept coming on between the innings for like this ad for like a casino or something and so… everybody just kind of vibes with it because we're like, “oh, that’s that song!” Like, we just kind of like it from that experience and stuff, you know? The participants mentioned that these songs heard repeatedly over the stadium, regardless of whether they matched with personal preferences, could help teammates bond with one another. Walk-Up/Walk-Out Songs. While players acknowledged that music being played in stadiums can be experienced in other sports as well, several mentioned the unique integration of walk-up/walk-out songs. Dan discussed the uniqueness and widespread use of walk-up songs, explaining that, “no other sport has like, ‘When I do this, play this.’ So… it’s just a different… thing that the sport of baseball has… Now, every team… it is like okay you do this, you get your jersey number, you get your uniform, and you say your walk-out.” As walk-up/walk-out songs are the only times that players are able to select the music being played in the stadium and are tied with an individual’s performance, participants described BASEBALL MUSIC INTEGRATION 23 the process of choosing a song as being hours-long and was different for position players and pitchers. Walk-up songs, used for hitters, are around 15-second clips of a song selected by an athlete to be played as they walk to the plate and thus occur multiple times in a game. Some individuals choose one song to be played for all of their at-bats, while others prefer to use a few rotating songs. Walk-out songs are typically longer (about 1 minute in length) and are chosen by relief pitchers to be played as they run onto the field and warm-up during the game. These songs are thus only played once per game. Participants expressed often being highly intentional and purposeful with the song and timing of the song to be played. Some players reported choosing a walk-up/walk-out song that would have a direct impact on them in hopes of enhancing performance. One such use was to elicit a desired emotion, as Lee stated that listening to his song, “Kind of gives [him] confidence. Kind of swagger on the mound that like [he] feel[s] comfortable and [he’s] in a good state.” Another reason was to use the song for regulating arousal. Ken, about hearing his walk-up song being played, stated, “I can feel my breathing getting slower, and I think that is the key to it, man. When you get in the box, can you slow your heart rate down.” Outside of performance, several players mentioned choosing a walk-up/walk-out song that represented who they are as a person or as a baseball player. Dan explained that, “If it’s someone’s walk-out, it’s a personal song that they chose, so, it represents them walking up to the plate,” while describing his own process of choosing a song in saying, “ I always pick something that hits close to home because it is like… just like, I don’t know, it is just the way it has been. It is like I have to pay my respect almost, but it is not that. I pay my respect to what made me who I am. So, I’m going to take it everywhere I go kind of thing.” Similarly, Ron described choosing his walk-up to be a tribute, saying, “in college, I had a Frank Sinatra song actually. And, um… it BASEBALL MUSIC INTEGRATION 24 was, it was I guess you could say it was a tribute to my dad and my family. Because they’re based out of Chicago and Frank Sinatra is a Chicago legend.” In addition to a self-focused selection, players also utilize their walk-up/walk-out songs to engage the crowd. Luis expressed the fans as the primary factor in his selection, stating, “every walk song I have chosen, I have chosen it for the crowd, it’s not for me. A lot of people do it to get the crowd going, not to get themselves going… I choose a song I like, then I tell myself is the crowd going to like it.” Some players did so with the ultimate goal of regulating their own energy/arousal, as Ron explained that, “with the audience being engaged, obviously that’s gonna have an effect on him. I mean if you have 500 people behind you engaged in what you’re about to do, if you as an individual can’t get engaged because of that then you should check your pulse for sure.” Other players used walk-up/walk-out songs as a way of connecting with the fan base. Luis expounded on this particular use with his walk-up song, saying: I got really good responses… by the crowd, uh, people actually like sent me [direct messages] and stuff like, ‘Hey, I love your walk-up song! It's so different! Like… actually that’s cool… I like being able to tweet, to go search me on Twitter or Instagram and be like, ‘Yo, I like your walk-up song.’ It’s pretty cool. One participant mentioned that the walk-up/walk-out song can serve as a way of giving fans insight into the type of music players listen to and their personalities. Participants depicted their walk-up/walk-out selection as a continuous process and explained reasons for changing music. A few examples were identified by participants in which a player keeps their specific song and it becomes strongly associated with him (e.g., Mariano Rivera), however most players change their song yearly. Another common reason for changing songs was due to performance. Dan summarized this reasoning: BASEBALL MUSIC INTEGRATION 25 That is one of the first things. ‘Oh man, I went 0-4 today with four strike outs, gotta change my walk-up.’ Like it is just something… baseball is also very superstitious [sic] in that aspect. So, it is like… So that’s going to be the first thing you change. It is a routine; you’ve got to change a routine. If you keep making the same mistake, you’ve got to change the routine, change the path you are taking. While this change typically occurred between games, some participants cited changes even occurring in-game. A final reason for changing walk-up songs was feedback, usually negative, from teammates. As explained by Ken, “some guys just don’t like to catch slaps from other teammates like, ‘Man, that song. Why you listening to that? What is that? How does that hype you up?’ Some people just can't take it and… they’ll change it. They want to find a song they think is pleasing everyone.” Though participants reported multiple reasons for choosing music to listen to, players often make interpretations of others’ selections of walk-up/walk-out songs. Players explained a perception that the music chosen by others can provide insight into their teammates, as well as their competitors. To this point, Tom stated, “And it’s kind of funny to see like further into people based on what they do for that, it’s… it’s pretty neat to hear other, different tastes and what they feel like is a good walk-up song, or if it’s actually just a song that they like. It’s kind of funny to see.” Ken expressed how he interprets opposing players’ walk-up songs, saying, “when I’m catching, I’ll listen to a walk-up song and… it is a little game I’ll play with myself when I’m back behind the plate. Probably look at the scoreboard and listen to the song and be like, ‘I wonder where this guy is from?’ And a lot of time it’ll fool me… but it is so cool how BASEBALL MUSIC INTEGRATION 26 like it doesn’t it doesn’t matter I guess where you’re from if like there’s a lot of different people, which is really cool.” Discussion The current study was designed to explore baseball players’ experience with selecting and using music, as well as their perceptions of the impact of music on gameday. Conducting phenomenological interviews with professional baseball players allowed the researchers to investigate the thoughts about, feelings toward, and motivations for music listening at both the individual and team levels across performance as experienced by the players. The authors compared findings from the present study with current theories on music use for psychological preparation, emotion regulation in sport, and other theories used in applied sport psychology, with participant descriptions helping to both support and extend the literature. For example, to the best of the authors’ knowledge, no studies to date have explored the use of music at the differing levels (i.e., individual, team, stadium) and at different stages throughout a gameday (e.g., pre-game, during game, post-game). Music Selection and Use At all levels and stages, music selection was a process, music was part of the gameday routine, songs were selected for intended purposes, and listening had perceived effects. While sharing these themes across levels, each level of listening altered the ways in which music was used and experienced in unique ways. Individual listening took place throughout the day before and after games and happened in the individual’s car or via headphones. Descriptions of participants’ individual music listening before games supported previous findings (Gabana et al., 2019) and proposed theories (Bishop et al., 2007) on the selecti

Using the social ecological model to build a path analysis model of physical activity in a sample of active US college studentsUsing the social ecological model to build a path analysis model of physical activity in a sample of active US college students Jonathan J. Stewart West Virginia University, jjstewart@mix.wvu.edu Follow this and additional works at: https://researchrepository.wvu.edu/etd Part of the Health Psychology Commons, and the Sports Studies Commons Recommended Citation Stewart, Jonathan J., "Using the social ecological model to build a path analysis model of physical activity in a sample of active US college students" (2020). Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports. 7652. https://researchrepository.wvu.edu/etd/7652 This Dissertation is protected by copyright and/or related rights. It has been brought to you by the The Research Repository @ WVU with permission from the rights-holder(s). You are free to use this Dissertation in any way that is permitted by the copyright and related rights legislation that applies to your use. For other uses you must obtain permission from the rights-holder(s) directly, unless additional rights are indicated by a Creative Commons license in the record and/ or on the work itself. This Dissertation has been accepted for inclusion in WVU Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports collection by an authorized administrator of The Research Repository @ WVU. For more information, please contact researchrepository@mail.wvu.edu. Using the social ecological model to build a path analysis model of physical activity in a sample of active US college students Jonathan Stewart, M.S. Dissertation submitted to the College of Physical Activity and Sport Sciences at West Virginia University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctorate of Philosophy in Kinesiology With an emphasis in Sport and Exercise Psychology Sam Zizzi, Ed.D. (Committee Chair) Christa Lilly, Ph.D. Scott Barnicle, Ph.D. Jack C. Watson II, Ph.D. Department of Sport Sciences Morgantown, West Virginia 2019 Keywords: physical activity, alcohol use, college, social ecological model, achievement goal Copyright 2019 Jonathan Stewart Abstract Using the social ecological model to build a path analysis model of physical activity in a sample of active US college students Jonathan Stewart, M.S. Objective: To examine how achievement goal orientation, perceived barriers and benefits, self efficacy, on-campus residence, transportation, and binge drinking impact physical activity. Participants: Five hundred and twenty (70.23% female) college students participated in the study during Fall 2014. Methods: Students completed an online questionnaire that measured environmental and psychosocial factors, and physical activity behaviors. Results: A path analysis revealed that self-efficacy, episodes of binge drinking, use of active transportation, and use of public transportation all had significant direct effects on physical activity. Meanwhile, perceived barriers had a significant negative direct effect on physical activity. Conclusion: Results indicate that both environmental and psychological factors influence engagement in physical activity. iii Acknowledgements I would like to start by thanking my family for being a consistent source of support and motivation. Clay and Logan, you have both helped keep me motivated and grounded throughout this journey. I am incredibly proud of you both. Mom and Dad, you have both taught me so much. To my whole family, you all have given me so much over the years and I appreciate you all more than you know. Next I would like to thank my WVU family for making this adventure a memorable one. Thank you for listening to me when I needed to vent, for teaching me to dress in the cold weather, for the early morning office chats, and the company during those late night writing sessions. You have all left a permanent imprint on my life in one way or another. I am a better person for the time that we all had together. Aaron and Zenzi. Thank you for being consistent sources of guidance, motivation, and laughs no matter the physical distance. Carra, thanks for challenging me and providing wisdom I didn’t even know I needed. I would also like to thank all of my Public Health colleagues and peers. My experiences in Public Health have shaped my view of the world in ways I never could have imagined. To the WVU and SEP faculty, thank you for giving me the opportunity to pursue my dream. Your trust and faith in me helped me grow into the person that I am today. Dr. Zizzi, thank you for your unwavering support, especially near the end. Your trust in me helped me learn to trust myself. Thank you for meeting me at the base of the mountain and guiding me to the top. Dr. Lilly, thank you for your guidance, support, and (perhaps most of all) your patience. Your willingness to go above and beyond is greatly appreciated. Dr. Watson, thank you for being there throughout my time in Morgantown and not letting me disappear once I left town. Dr. Barnicle, thank you for your support and for challenging me take a different perspective. Dr. Etzel, your wise words continue to resonate with me both personally and professionally. Ashley, you helped me find my passion in applied work and reminded me why I wanted to study SEP in the first place. For that I will be forever grateful. Dr. Giacobbi, thank you helping me to develop my research skills as I was first embarking on this PhD journey and for helping introduce me to the world of Public Health. I would also like to thank all of colleagues at the SRC. Nancy, thank you for always providing a break from academia, your mentorship, and professional and general life guidance. You always said what I needed to here, regardless of whether or not I wanted to hear it. I’ll always be grateful for that and for everything you have done for me. Last, but certainly not least, thank you to my R2 friends and family. Hayley, James, Brittney, Matt, Will, and Patrick. Thank you for being a steady source of support, motivation, a sounding board, and for putting up with me as I finished this journey. iv Table of Contents Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 1 Socioecological Model ................................................................................................................ 4 Environmental Factors ................................................................................................................ 5 Individual Factors ........................................................................................................................ 6 Methods........................................................................................................................................... 9 Research Design .......................................................................................................................... 9 Instruments ................................................................................................................................ 10 Data Analysis ............................................................................................................................ 13 Results ........................................................................................................................................... 14 Discussion ..................................................................................................................................... 16 Limitations ................................................................................................................................ 21 Future Directions ....................................................................................................................... 22 Application ................................................................................................................................ 24 Table 1 – Sample Characteristics .................................................................................................. 39 Table 2 – Descriptive Statistics ..................................................................................................... 41 Table 3 - Correlations ................................................................................................................... 43 Table 4 – Fit Indices ..................................................................................................................... 45 Table 5 – Indirect Effects .............................................................................................................. 46 Figure 1 – Hypothesized Model .................................................................................................... 47 Figure 2 – SAS Revised Model .................................................................................................... 48 Figure 3 – Final Model ................................................................................................................. 49 Appendix A. Extended Review of the Literature .......................................................................... 50 References ..................................................................................................................................... 77 Running Head: A MODEL OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY 1 Introduction Physical inactivity and alcohol consumption are two risk factors commonly associated with the development of a number of chronic diseases and premature death (Lee et al., 2012; Warburton et al., 2006; World Health Organization, 2018). Alcohol consumption, including an increased number of daily drinks, drinking frequency, and heavy episodic drinking, has been associated with academic problems, injuries, and risky behavior in college students and emerging adults (18-24 years of age) (Hingson, 2017; Kuperberg & Padgett, 2017; Rinker et al., 2016). In contrast, physical activity can serve as a protective factor and reduce the risk of developing chronic diseases such as diabetes, heart disease, and colon cancer (Kyu et al., 2016; Lee, Sesso, Oguma, & Paffenbarger, 2003). Individuals who are physically active in early adulthood (18-22 years old) are more likely to be physically active later in life (Nogueira et al., 2009). Thus, physical activity behaviors and increased frequency of drinking during the college years (i.e. generally 18-24 years of age) have the potential to have lasting impacts later in life. The American College Health Association (2019) defined recommended levels of physical activity as a minimum of 30 minutes of moderate intensity cardio or aerobic exercise on 5 or more days per week, or at least 20 minutes of vigorous cardio or aerobic exercise on 3 or more days per week. The American College Health Association (2019) reported data from 54,497 students in the Spring 2019 National College Health Assessment II (ACHA-NCHA II). In this large sample, 46.2% of undergraduate students met recommended levels of exercise based on self-reported data (American College Health Association, 2019). The ACHA semi-annual survey includes items assessing a wide variety of health- and academic-related variables using a comprehensive self-report survey. Colleges and universities use this data to compare self reported behaviors on their campus to national norms. A MODEL OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY 2 One of the most common health behaviors studied along with physical activity in US college students is alcohol consumption. The American College Health Association (2019) recently stated that 55.8% of undergraduate college students reported consuming an alcoholic beverage within the previous 30 days. Among the students who consumed alcohol, 33.3% reported doing something they regretted while drinking in the past 12 months. Furthermore, Soedamah-Muthu, De Neve, Shelton, Tielemans, and Stamatakis (2013) have reported a joint association between alcohol consumption, level of physical activity, and risk of cardiovascular mortality and all-cause mortality. Physical activity was measured in MET hours/week. METs (or metabolic equivalents) represent energy expenditure at different intensities (i.e. 1 MET represents sitting quietly). Alcohol was measured in units (1 unite = 8g of ethanol or approximately 4 oz. of wine or 8 oz. of beer). When physical activity was low (.1 to 5 MET-hours/week for males and .1 to 4 MET-hours/week for females) and alcohol consumption was high (>35 units/week for males and >21 units/week for females) there is an increased risk of cardiovascular mortality (HR 1.95) and all-cause mortality (HR 1.64). However, the researchers found that when physical activity was high (>5 MET-hours/week for males and >4 MET hours/week for females), high alcohol intake was not linked to increased risk of cardiovascular mortality. Thus, both alcohol intake and physical activity are important for reducing risk of all cause mortality and cardiovascular mortality. However, given that high alcohol intake was not associated with increased risk of cardiovascular mortality in the presence of high levels of physical activity, physical inactivity may be a larger contributing factor to the risk of cardiovascular mortality than alcohol consumption. Contrary to what may be expected, level of physical activity is commonly associated with alcohol consumption in college students. Students who self-reported consumption of alcohol within the past 30 days were 40% more likely to have used the campus recreation facility A MODEL OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY 3 compared to those who had not consumed alcohol (Miller, Noland, Rayens, & Staten, 2008). The amount of alcohol consumed while binge drinking (r=.13) and self-reported level of drinking (r=.08) have been found to be positively associated (though weakly) with leisure time physical activity (Stuntz, Smith, & Vensel, 2017). Graupensperger, Wilson, Bopp, and Blair Evans (2018) found that alcohol consumption was associated with vigorous, but not moderate, physical activity across a six month study. Despite these associations, the underlying mechanism for the relationship between alcohol consumption and physical activity is unclear. Some hypothesize that students may engage in physical activity to compensate for the alcohol consumed while drinking (Abrantes et al., 2017; Graupensperger et al., 2018). A variety of other factors have been linked to alcohol consumption in college students, including location of residence, social influence, and alcohol related norms (Abrantes et al., 2017; Arterberry, Smith, Martens, Cadigan, & Murphy, 2014; Graupensperger et al., 2018; Weitzman, Nelson, & Wechsler, 2003; Yoon, Kim, & Lee, 2014). For example, researchers have investigated the relationship between protective behavioral strategies, alcohol related norms, and alcohol behavior in a sample of college students (Arterberry et al., 2014). The researchers noted that social norms, such as perceived alcohol consumption among other students, were positively associated with alcohol use. These studies did not examine important environmental factors in relation to physical activity, such as transportation. Given the positive association between alcohol consumption and levels of physical activity, it is important to have a better understanding of this relationship, and the factors that impact both behaviors to reduce alcohol consumption without reducing physical activity. Therefore, there is a need to approach these behaviors through a framework such as the social ecological model. This will allow for the inclusion of different factors, at multiple levels, that influence engagement in health behaviors. A MODEL OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY 4 Socioecological Model The simple provision of physical activity recommendations by organizations and the government has been ineffective at increasing physical activity behaviors at the population level (Guthold et al., 2018; Pratt et al., 2015; Sallis et al., 2016; Schwartz et al., 2019). Despite increased awareness of these recommendations, from 2001 to 2016, the level of insufficient physical activity in high income countries increased from 31.6% to 36.8% (Guthold et al., 2018). Thus, researchers have emphasized the application of theoretical frameworks to the study of physical activity (R. E. Rhodes et al., 2019). For example, in a recent review, researchers summarized randomized (RCT) and non-randomized (NRCT) control trials that promoted physical activity in university students (Maselli et al., 2018). Researchers utilized more than one theory to inform intervention design in multiple trials. All but one of the effective interventions addressed multiple components of physical activity behavior, however, the majority of these studies focused on individual or interpersonal factors and excluded environmental factors, which are often the most dynamic and complex in nature. The central theory of a social ecological model is that behavior is the result of various nested levels of interpersonal, intrapersonal, and environmental influences (Bronfenbrenner, 1977; Sallis et al., 2008; Spence & Lee, 2003). Over time, physical activity researchers have begun to favor the incorporation of multiple levels of influence. Bauman et al. (2012) examined reviews of physical activity with a focus on individual, interpersonal, environmental, regional or national policies, and global factors across a wide array of age groups and cultures. The authors of this review note that both environmental and personal factors may influence physical activity behavior. Thus, the inclusion of multiple environmental, psychosocial, and behavioral factors may provide additional insight into physical activity behavior beyond a more singular focus (Bauman et al., 2012; Sallis et al., 2006; Spence & Lee, 2003). To accomplish this goal, A MODEL OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY 5 researchers may need to use more advanced statistical methods that allow several factors across levels to be evaluated simultaneously. Environmental Factors Researchers have examined environmental factors associated with physical activity by including the relationship between residence (on/off campus), distance of residence from campus recreation centers, and level of physical activity (Allen & Ross, 2013; Castle, Alman II, Kostelnik, & Smith, 2015; Essiet, Baharom, Shahar, & Uzochukwu, 2017; Miller et al., 2008; Reed & Phillips, 2005; Staten, Miller, Noland, & Rayens, 2005; Watson, Ayers, Zizzi, & Naoi, 2006; Yoon et al., 2014). Students who lived on-campus or within one mile of the campus recreation facility were more likely to use the facility compared to those who lived off-campus or over one mile away (Castle et al., 2015; Watson et al., 2006) and typically report higher levels of physical activity compared to those who live off campus or further away (Miller et al., 2008; Staten et al., 2005; Yoon et al., 2014). In a random sample of 899 undergraduate students, those who lived on campus were 44% (OR=1.44) more likely to use the facility compared to those who lived off campus (Miller et al., 2008). In short, students living on campus tend to engage in higher levels of physical activity compared to those living off-campus. Environmental factors, such as location of residence (e.g. on-campus), are not only positively associated with physical activity, but have also been associated with increased alcohol consumption in college students (Castle et al., 2015; Staten et al., 2005; Yoon et al., 2014). Environmental factors can contribute to first year students beginning to binge drink (e.g. 5 or more drinks for males) in college. Weitzman and colleagues (2003) used national data to determine factors associated with binge drinking in freshman students. They found that first year students who lived in coed on-campus (OR=1.90) or Greek housing (OR=2.85) were significantly more likely to begin binge drinking compared to students who lived off-campus A MODEL OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY 6 with a roommate (OR=.82) or with parents (OR=.40). Similarly, in another study, the authors reported female students who lived on-campus consumed more alcoholic beverages than female students who lived off-campus (Yoon et al., 2014). In line with the socioecological framework, community and individual level factors such as transportation, self-efficacy and motivation may also play an important role in determining physical activity behavior. For example, in a study with college students in Ireland, Murphy and colleagues (2019) found that students who had a longer travel time (lived 10 minutes further from their university) were less likely to be classified as active commuters (OR=.59), participate in physical activity only at the university (OR=.80), or fall in the high physically active cluster (OR=.58). At the same time, an increase in motivation (e.g. feeling motivated to be physically active) increased the likelihood that students would participate in physical activity only at the university (OR=1.13) or be placed in the high active cluster (OR=1.27). In other words, for every one unit increase on the Likert scale in motivation, students were 27% more likely to be classified in the high active cluster. This may be especially important given the negative relationship between living further from campus and physical activity. Therefore, in addition to modes of transportation, motivation may be an important intrapersonal factor that can influence behavior in conjunction with environmental factors. Individual Factors Researchers have reported that motivation may facilitate beneficial beliefs about physical activity and lead to sustained behavior in college students (Kilpatrick et al., 2003; Watson et al., 2006; Zizzi et al., 2006). Achievement goal theory describes how individuals define success in specific achievement contexts, such as exercise, and thus how they are motivated to reach their goals (Nicholls, 1989; Roberts et al., 1998). In achievement goal theory, achievement goals aren’t just targets, rather, they represent an orientation toward tasks that include associated views A MODEL OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY 7 about success, effort, ability, and purpose (Pintrich, 2000). Specifically, task-oriented motivation (success occurs with learning and mastery) was positively associated with exercise intensity, years exercising, and exercise enjoyment. On the other hand, ego orientation (success is defined through comparison to others or some standard) was not significantly correlated to these constructs (Kilpatrick et al., 2003). Moreover, research shows that as college students transition toward maintenance (i.e., sustain recommended guidelines of 150 minutes of physical activity for more than 6 months) of physical activity, level of task focus continues or increases, while reliance on ego reference cues decreases (Zizzi et al., 2006). In a study involving 569 college students, Zizzi et al. (2006) found that, students who exercised regularly were more likely to be in the high task/high ego group than the low task/low ego group. Additionally, task orientation has been associated with the belief that success was related to effort, interest, and adaptive achievement strategies (Biddle et al., 2003; Duda & Nicholls, 1992). Thus, a task involvement may yield sustained effort, more adaptive behaviors, and persistence in physical activity engagement compared to ego involvement, which has been a consistent finding in the literature (Biddle et al., 2003; Duda, 1989; Duda & Nicholls, 1992; Kilpatrick et al., 2003). In addition to motivation, self-efficacy is often found to be related to level of physical activity (Maselli et al., 2018; Young et al., 2014). Self-efficacy refers to an individual’s belief in their ability to take the actions necessary to cope with a situation or achieve a desired outcome (Bandura, 1982) and has been associated with increased physical activity in college students (Shaikh et al., 2018). Specifically, these researchers observed that exercise self-efficacy was positively associated with days of strenuous physical activity. Two factors that may influence an individual’s self-efficacy and level of physical activity are perceived benefits and barriers (Bandura, 1982; Grubbs & Carter, 2002; Horacek et al., 2018; A MODEL OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY 8 King et al., 2014). Common benefits of physical activity reported by college students include improved physical appearance, physical fitness, and health (Grubbs & Carter, 2002; King et al., 2014). College students also face a number of barriers to physical activity such as lack of knowledge, self-efficacy, time, and resources (Sukys et al., 2019). In a sample of 480 college students, King and colleagues (2014) noted that perceived benefits were positively associated with vigorous physical activity, while perceived barriers were negatively associated with vigorous physical activity. However, other researchers have suggested that the impact of perceived barriers outweighs the impact of perceived benefits on physical activity (Hurley et al., 2018). Thus, further investigation is needed to clarify the role of perceived benefits and barriers in determining physical activity behavior. Although previous research has established the relationship between psychological and environmental factors and physical activity, they have traditionally focused on these factors separately from each other and/or have not used path analysis to develop a model of these factors. Thus, the purpose of the current study is to utilize a socioecological framework to investigate the relationship between environmental and psychological correlates of physical activity. More specifically, we will examine how achievement goal orientation, perceived barriers, perceived benefits, self-efficacy, on-campus residence, transportation, and binge drinking are related to physical activity. A secondary purpose is to explore the interactions between achievement goal orientation and barrier self-efficacy, as well as the interactions between on-campus residence, transportation, and binge drinking. Figure 1 represents a diagram of the proposed model. Perceived benefits, barriers, and self-efficacy are associated with physical activity behavior (Grubbs & Carter, 2002; King et al., 2014; Maselli et al., 2018; Shaikh et al., 2018). Individuals with a high task orientation may persist in the face of challenges and barriers to A MODEL OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY 9 physical activity (Biddle et al., 2003; Kilpatrick et al., 2003). Thus, the relationship between achievement orientation and physical activity may be mediated by perceived barriers and benefits. Previous researchers have established a positive association between living on-campus, alcohol consumption, and physical activity, as well as between alcohol consumption and physical activity (Castle et al., 2015; Graupensperger et al., 2018). Thus, it was hypothesized that alcohol consumption and transportation would mediate the relationship between living on-campus and physical activity. In summary:  Task and ego motivations were proposed to be negatively associated with perceived barriers and positively associated with perceived benefits  Task and ego motivations were proposed to be positively associated with physical activity  Location of residence was proposed to be positively associated with alcohol consumption, use of public and active transportation, and physical activity  Self-efficacy, alcohol consumption, and use of active and public transportation were proposed to be positively associated with physical activity engagement  Self-efficacy was expected to mediate the relationship between perceived barriers, perceived benefits, and physical activity  Alcohol consumption and transportation were expected to mediate the relationship between location of residence and physical activity Methods Research Design The present study completed a secondary analysis of data collected via a cross sectional survey. Self-reported data were collected from 629 university students. The research design was quantitative and correlational in nature. A MODEL OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY 10 Instruments The present survey was a modified version of a previously published survey that was used with similar populations (Zizzi et al., 2004, 2006). The final survey included a total of 96 questions that assessed residence (on or off-campus), transportation, physical activity, forms of exercise, barriers to exercise, confidence, support, primary reason for campus recreation facility use, desired facility improvements, goal orientation, alcohol use, and demographic information. During survey development, input was sought from experts in the field as well as staff from the university’s Student Recreation Center’s Wellness staff on several items. Achievement goal orientation. Achievement goal orientation refers to how an individual defines personal success in specific achievement contexts and thus their motivation to reach their goal success (Nicholls, 1989; Roberts et al., 1998). The Perception of Success Questionnaire for Exercise (POSQ-E; Zizzi et al., 2006) was used to measure goal orientation. The POSQ-E consists of 11-items (6 task orientation and 5 ego orientation) measured on a 4-point Likert type scale. The items are averaged to determine task and ego orientation. The higher the score on the task orientation subscale, the more the individual defines their success by personal mastery and improvement. The higher the score on the ego orientation subscale, the more the individual defines their success as outperforming others or some standard. A sentence stem of “When exercising, I feel most successful when…” was used for each item in the POSQ-E (Zizzi et al., 2006). In previous research the two subscales of the POSQ-E combined to explain approximately 65% of variance and had good internal reliability with alpha values of .87 (task) and .88 (ego). The questionnaire has also demonstrated convergent validity with stages of change for exercise participation and factor validity. Average item response was used for each subscale, task and ego. A MODEL OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY 11 Binge drinking. Binge drinking is defined as the consumption of 5 or more alcoholic beverages for males, (4 or more for females) in one sitting (ACHA, 2014). Similarly, the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration states that binge drinking occurs on one occasion or over the course of a couple of hours (National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, 2017). An alcoholic drink was defined for the participants as 12 ounces of beer, 5 ounces of wine, or 1.25 ounces of hard alcohol. The questionnaire contained four items modeled after the ACHA (2014) questions (last 30 days) and the definition of binge drinking. A binary (yes/no) question was used to assess if the participants consumed alcohol in the past 30 days. For the purpose of this study, binge drinking was assessed by asking how many times they consumed 5 or more drinks (4 drinks for females) in one sitting over the past two weeks. The number of hours for “one sitting” was not defined for participants. Physical activity. Physical activity can be defined as any physical movement that leads to an increase in energy output (R. E. Rhodes et al., 2017). Examples and definitions for moderate (brisk walking, gardening, activities that cause small increases in breathing or heart rate) and vigorous (running, aerobics, activities that cause large increases in your breathing or heart rate) physical activity were provided for participants. Physical activity was measured with modified questions from the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System Survey Questionnaire (CDC, 2014). These questions included the number of days they engage in physical activity (moderate or vigorous) for at least 10 minutes and on those days, the time in minutes spent per day engaging in moderate or vigorous activity. Number of days of physical activity was multiplied by minutes to determine weekly minutes of physical activity. Weekly minutes of physical activity was rescaled (divided by 100) prior to running path analysis. Barriers to physical activity. Participants were asked how often different barriers interfere with or prevent them from exercising. Perceived barriers to physical activity were A MODEL OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY 12 assessed using a 4-point Likert type scale (1-Never to 4-Frequently). Barriers included not having time, feeling self-conscious, and fear of injury. Similar barriers and approaches to the measurement of physical activity have been cited in previous research involving college students (Ball et al., 2018; Bray, 2007; Gyurcsik et al., 2004; Sukys et al., 2019). Item responses were summed for total perceived barriers to physical activity. Benefits of physical activity. Perceived benefits for physical activity refer to potential improvements or gains that will occur through engagement in physical activity (Brown, 2005). Participants responded to a question that asked them to rate how important different factors were in their decision to engage or not engage in physical activity. Potential benefits included, more energy, feeling less stressed, increased confidence, and improved sleep among others. Students responded on a scale from “Not at all important (1)” to “Extremely important (4)”. Item responses were summed to create total perceived benefits of physical activity. Self-efficacy. Self-efficacy, or an individual’s confidence in their ability to begin or maintain physical activity was assessed with a single question. Respondents were asked “How sure or confident are you that you can start or continue to exercise for at least 30 minutes per day at least 5 days per week?”. They responded using a 4-point Likert type scale of very unsure to very sure. Responses of 1, 2, or 3 were coded as a ‘0’ for lower self-efficacy and responses of 4 were coded as a ‘1’ for high self-efficacy for physical activity. Mode of transportation. Transportation was assessed with a single question. Students were asked “What method of transportation do you use the most to get around town?”. Response options included: walk, bike, my car, various forms of public transportation, and other. The other option included space to fill in an unlisted mode of transportation. The response options were dummy coded. Walk and bike were combined to form the ‘Active Transportation’ group. The “my car” response served as the reference group. A MODEL OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY 13 On-campus residence. A single binary question was used to assess whether the respondent lived on or off-campus. Greek life affiliation. Membership in a fraternity or sorority was assessed with a single yes or no question. Gender. Gender was assessed with a single question. Students were asked their gender and to select either “male” or “female”. Class standing. Class standing refers to academic class level. Participants were asked to select their class standing. Options included first year student, sophomore, junior, senior (including 5th year), and graduate or professional. Data Analysis Descriptive statistics, including mean and standard deviation, and bivariate correlations were calculated. Path analysis was used to test the hypothesized model (Figure 1) in SAS v. 9.4 (Cary, NC, 2015). Due to missing data, Full Information Maximum Likelihood (FIML) was used for model estimation. The data set was checked for multicollinearity, outliers, and normality. Path analysis was chosen to examine the directionality of the relationships between the variables. Root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA), standardized root mean square residual (SRMR), comparative fit index (CFI), and χ2 were all used to assess model fit. RMSEA values less than .08, SRMR values less than .05, CFI values approaching or exceeding .95, and a nonsignificant χ2 were used to identify acceptable fit (Hooper et al., 2008; Hu & Bentler, 1999; Weston & Gore, 2006). A model with acceptable fit means the proposed model was supported. The model controlled for multiple variables, including membership in a Greek organization, gender, and class standing. Data Cleaning A MODEL OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY 14 A total of 629 students responded to the study. However, there were 59 respondents who opened the survey and didn’t respond to any questions. There were 10 respondents found to be outliers for weekly minutes of physical activity with values greater than 871 minutes (3 standard deviations plus the mean). These cases were removed. Analysis were run to check for the assumptions of homoscedasticity, multicollinearity, and normality. Multicollinearity was not present with Tolerance less than 1 (.62 to .85) and VIF values below 10 (1.17 to 1.61). Results Participants were enrolled as full- or part-time students at a midsize mid-Atlantic university. According to university records, the institution the sample was drawn from was 48.96% female and 80.34% Caucasian/White. The majority of respondents in the current sample were female (n=330), Caucasian/White (n=423), and lived off-campus (n=365). The participants were distributed across undergraduate (Freshman, Sophomore, Junior, Senior) and graduate class standings. A small percentage of the sample were involved in club (n=40) or intramural sports (n=52). The majority of respondents participated in sports while attending high school for at least one season (n=405). Many students reported free access to a fitness facility in their residence hall or housing complex (n= 295). The sample was relatively active as 48.86% met or exceeded 180 minutes of physical activity per week. On average, respondents lived nearly 14 minutes from the campus recreation center (M=13.73, SD=9.41). Table 1 contains additional sample frequencies. Descriptive statistics and correlations were calculated for the weekly minutes of physical activity (MVPA; M=233.75, SD=162.23), perceived barriers (barriers; M=25.44, SD=6.18), binge drinking behavior (binge; M=1.84, SD=2.18), and average responses for each achievement goal orientation subscale (task: M=3.45, SD=.54; ego: M=2.24, SD=.77), among other variables. Means and standard deviations are presented in Table 2. Physical activity was positively correlated with binge drinking (r=.168, p<.01), active transport (r=.123, p=.016), self-efficacy A MODEL OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY 15 for physical activity (r=.368, p<.0001) and being male (r=.149, p<.01). Weekly minutes of physical activity was negatively correlated with perceived barriers (r=-.372, p<.0001). Additional correlations are presented in Table 3. Prior to model testing, the physical activity variable was rescaled in order to reduce difference in scale of standard deviations among the variables and prevent analysis errors (O’Rouke & Hatcher, 2013). Physical activity values were divided by 100 and the standard deviation was reduced from 162.23 to 1.62. The initial hypothesized path model, figure 1, which depicted relationships between achievement goal orientation, perceived barriers, perceived benefits, binge drinking, living on campus, self-efficacy, and primary form of transportation was tested. Car as primary form of transportation was used as a referent category for active and public transportation. Lower self-efficacy was used as the referent group for self-efficacy. Additionally, the effects of gender, membership in a sorority or fraternity, and class standing were controlled for in the model. Female was used as the referent group for gender. The reference group for membership in a sorority or fraternity was not being a member of a fraternity or sorority. The hypothesized model did not have good model fit (χ2 = 300.58, df = 43, χ2, p<.0001, SRMR=.0789, RMSEA=.098, CFI=.685). Thus the hypothesized model was not supported. The next model tested (Figure 2) added covariances between task orientation and ego orientation, task orientation and perceived benefits, ego orientation and Greek life membership, ego orientation and gender, and perceived benefits and gender. This model showed improved fit but still did not meet “good” fit criteria (χ2 = 276.55, df = 51, χ2 p<.0001, SRMR=.075, RMSEA=.084, CFI=.724). Through further model development, constraints were placed on covariances and additional paths were drawn based on modification indices. The final model, Figure 3, included a path from public to active transit and dropped several non-meaningful paths. A MODEL OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY 16 This resulted in a more parsimonious model with acceptable fit (χ2 = 100.57, df = 54, χ2 p<.0001, SRMR=.050, RMSEA=.037, CFI=.943). The fit indices for the models can be found in Table 4. The final model explained 24.51% of variance in physical activity. Perceived barriers had a negative statistically significant direct effect on physical activity (β = -.252, p < .001). High self efficacy (β = .286, p < .001; in reference to lower self-efficacy), binge drinking (β = .137, p = .026), active transportation (β = .158, p = .002; in reference to car), and public transportation (β = .105, p = .047; in reference to car) all had statistically significant positive direct effects on physical activity. Standardized indirect effects can be found in table 5. Perceived barriers, on campus residence, public transportation, Greek life, and task orientation had statistically significant indirect effects on physical activity. Discussion Although the original model was only partially supported, the present study did find support for a multi-path approach to predicting physical activity. Both environmental and psychological factors were found to have significant effects on physical activity behavior. This finding is consistent with the central theory of social ecologic models (Bronfenbrenner, 1977; Sallis et al., 2008). In the present sample, the effects of individual level factors were stronger in predicting physical activity than the environmental factors. This finding is consistent with previous literature in which interpersonal factors had a larger direct effect on behavior than behavior settings or perceived environment (R. E. Rhodes et al., 2019; Yen & Li, 2019). Socioecological frameworks propose that interpersonal and environmental factors are interconnected. Thus, the strength of social cognitive factors may be due in part to unobserved environmental factors such as modeled behavior and verbal persuasion (Bandura, 1982; Ickes, McMullen, Pflug, & Westgate, 2016). The data from the present study can be used to lend support to these assertions. A MODEL OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY 17 Public transportation use had a direct effect on active transportation, and both forms of transportation had direct effects on weekly minutes of physical activity. The positive relationship between active transportation and minutes of physical activity is supported by previous research (Murphy et al., 2019). Living on-campus had a positive effect on the use of active or public transportation. It’s possible that, by living on-campus, students had shorter distances to travel and thus were more likely to utilize these forms of transportation. It’s also possible that on campus students had more convenient and regular access to public transportation. For instance, Simons et al. (2014) noted that travel time was a critical factor that influenced young adults’ decision to travel by walking or biking. The importance of travel time may, at least partially explain both the negative effect of public transportation use on active transportation, but, positive effect of public transportation on physical activity. Students in the present sample may have chosen public transportation over active transportation to get to their destination for a few reasons. The built environment for the current sample is generally not very walkable or bike friendly and the public transportation options are relatively consistent and generally accessible. The opportunity to reduce the amount of walking in unfavorable conditions may have also influenced reliance on public transportation. Despite the decision to use public transit, they likely had to rely on walking to get to their bus stop, or to their destination once they exited public transit. Typically, the choice to use public transportation begins and ends with at least a few minutes of walking. This finding adds to the college student literature because most studies have focused exclusively on psychosocial factors and ignored important contextual variables in students’ immediate environments (Maselli et al., 2018; R. E. Rhodes et al., 2019). Researchers have primarily utilized theoretical approaches that focus on the individual such as social cognitive theory, dual-process theories, and self-determination theory (Rhodes et A MODEL OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY 18 al., 2019). While these approaches have shown some effectiveness (Rebar et al., 2016; Teixeira et al., 2012; Young et al., 2014) they fail to incorporate important environmental variables such as transportation (Bauman et al., 2012). The social ecological approach allows for the individual level factors, such as self-efficacy, to be investigated alongside more broad factors like primary mode of transportation. This is important as these findings may be used to inform future interventions. Researchers have found that incorporating multiple factors can lead to successful attempts to change physical activity behavior (Maselli et al., 2018). Thus, examining the role of these important contextual variables may better inform future interventions. In line with previous literature (Castle et al., 2015; Graupensperger et al., 2018), binge drinking was positively associated with physical activity behavior. Researchers have previously stated that physical activity may increase with alcohol consumption as a way to compensate for unhealthy behavior (Graupensperger et al., 2018). Although this may be true, similar to previous research, affiliation with a fraternity or sorority was found to have a positive direct effect on binge drinking and indirect effect on physical activity via binge drinking (Buscemi et al., 2011). This interactive effect suggests that there may be other cultural norms that can help explain the relationship between binge drinking and physical activity beyond the purging of calories. For instance, social norms, alcohol expectancies, and a lack protective behavioral strategies can all influence alcohol consumption (Barry et al., 2016; N. Rhodes et al., 2019; Tyler et al., 2017). Barry and colleagues (2016) reported members of fraternities and sororities used fewer protective behavioral strategies (i.e. alternating between alcoholic and non-alcoholic beverages) compared students who were not involved with fraternities or sororities. The belief that one should engage in drinking behavior and intent to drink has been positively associated with Greek life (N. Rhodes et al., 2019). If these injunctive norms are influencing identity development, A MODEL OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY 19 membership in a fraternity or sorority may further impact drinking behavior (Thompson & Romo, 2016). Individual level factors also impacted engagement in physical activity. For example, self efficacy had a direct, positive effect on physical activity behavior. Belief in ability has been commonly linked to physical activity behavior (R. E. Rhodes et al., 2019), and this finding is congruent with multiple theories in which self-efficacy, or similar constructs can be found (Bandura, 2004; Hagger & Chatzisarantis, 2014; Ryan & Deci, 2017). For instance competence, similar to self-efficacy, describes the need to feel proficient and effectively interact with one’s environment (Ryan & Deci, 2017). Both competence and self-efficacy are positively associated with physical activity behavior across a number of studies, with self-efficacy usually one of the strongest psychosocial predictors of physical activity behavior (Bauman et al., 2012; Chu et al., 2019; Farren et al., 2017; Ng et al., 2012; Shaikh et al., 2018). The strength of self-efficacy as a predictor for physical activity was also highlighted in the present study’s findings. Perceived benefits had a positive direct effect on perceived barriers but not on physical activity. This finding is consistent with previous literature (King et al., 2014; Simons et al., 2014). Simons and colleagues (2014) recommended that some benefits, specifically ecological and health, should not be emphasized when attempting to promote active transportation to young adults. Perceived barriers, however, did have a significant negative effect on physical activity. Perceived barriers have been associated with reduced resistance training (Hurley et al., 2018), vigorous physical activity (King et al., 2014), and overall levels of physical activity (Horacek et al., 2018; Sukys et al., 2019). According to the health belief model, individuals will engage in a behavior based on their perceptions of benefits of, and barriers to, behavior (Tran et al., 2017). It is possible that some of the health benefits of physical activity may not have been salient for the present sample, and thus did not translate into increased intentions to be active. Perceived A MODEL OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY 20 barriers to physical activity may have been more relevant than the perceived benefits of physical activity to the present sample. This could have led to barriers being more salient than perceived benefits. Thus perceived barriers may play a more critical role in determining physical activity engagement in college students. In contrast to the hypothesized model, there was not a significant effect by either goal orientation subscale on physical activity. However, task orientation did have a significant direct effect on perceived barriers. This indirect effect may help explain why previous researchers have reported an association between high task orientation and perseverance (Kilpatrick et al., 2005). Individuals who focus on self-improvement and mastery may see overcoming barriers as part of the process. For instance, hard work, self-improvement, and overcoming difficulties are features of task orientation. This attitude may facilitate adaptive behaviors such as time management and learning how to exercise and thus directly impact the perceived severity of barriers without directly impacting physical activity itself. Additionally, the sample was highly active which may have contributed to task and ego goal orientations not having a direct impact on physical activity. For the current sample, physical activity engagement may be more reflective of automatic processes such as implicit attitude or habit. Habits are developed over time as behaviors are repeatedly performed (Gardner, 2015; Lally et al., 2010; Wood & Neal, 2009). A large portion of the present sample participated in high school sports prior to attending college. These past behaviors may have become routinized and habitual. Rebar and colleagues (2016) suggested that when behaviors become routine, they are regulated by more automatic habitual processes beyond more conscious processes. The sample was also made up largely of female college students. Female college students typical engage in lower levels of physical activity and consume less alcohol than their male counterparts (Abrantes et al., 2017; Graupensperger et al., 2018; Miller et al., 2008; Stuntz et al., A MODEL OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY 21 2017; Towne et al., 2017). Being a male was positively correlated with physical activity and binge drinking in the present sample. However, gender did not have a significant effect on physical activity in the final model. Despite the highly active sample, it is plausible that the large proportion of female students may have impacted the findings. Researchers have reported that a variety of factors, including alcohol consumption, can influence female college students’ physical activity differently compared to males (Davis et al., 2017; Kilpatrick et al., 2005; Shaffer et al., 2017). Thus, a more heterogeneous sample could yield different findings. In summary, the relationships between variables in the tested models supports the utilization of social ecological frameworks to investigate factors that impact physical activity in college students (Bauman et al., 2012; Sallis, 2018; Sallis et al., 2008). Individual and environmental factors can influence college students’ engagement in physical activity. As supported by the literature, self-efficacy can influence level of physical activity in college students (Farren et al., 2017). Broader environmental factors can also influence physical activity behavior (Sallis et al., 2008). The use of a social ecological framework to guide the investigation of factors that influence a more diverse sample of college students’ physical activity is needed. Limitations Multiple limitations should be considered when interpreting the results of this study. The participants were university students and were not randomly selected from the campus population. The sample was over representative of female students (70.77% of the sample compared to 48.96% of the institution’s population). The recruitment strategy did reach a broad audience and was made accessible to nearly all students, however the sample does not accurately reflect the institutional makeup. This may have impacted the findings of the current study. Furthermore, the current sample was made up of active students. The factors investigated in the current study may have different impacts on the physical activity behaviors of sedentary college A MODEL OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY 22 students and active students. Thus these findings may not be applicable to college students who do not exercise regularly. There is, however, value in understanding how factors impact those who are more active. Similar to how individuals may watch elite athletes in order to improve performance, enhanced understanding of factors associated with increased activity in some students help sedentary students increase their physical activity engagement. The present study also used self-report measures which may be subject to social desirability biases. Both physical activity and alcohol behaviors could be over-reported, or the behaviors in this sample could be unique to those that responded. Future Directions Future studies should aim to include more diverse sample, both in terms of activity level and demographic characteristics. The presented model should be tested in both active and sedentary populations. Comparisons between the models could help researchers further determine similarities and differences between the two samples. A more heterogeneous sample will also allow for researchers to control for factors such as gender. Males tend to have higher levels of physical activity when compared to females and can have different preferences and motives for engaging in physical activity. Further examination of the roles of gender and psychosocial and environmental variables can help advance our understanding of colleges students’ physical activity behavior (Davis et al., 2017). Gathering data from multiple institutions in different regions may help to create a more diverse sample with increased generalizability (Graupensperger et al., 2018). In addition to demographic makeup, data should also be gathered from students across academic disciplines. Researchers have found that academic disciplines can influence health related behaviors (Gathman et al., 2017; Shaikh et al., 2018). More diverse sample populations can help clarify the roles of different factors in determining college students’ physical activity behaviors. A MODEL OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY 23 The exact mechanism underlying the positive relationship between alcohol consumption and physical activity in unclear (Davis et al., 2017). Researchers have suggested that college students may engage in physical activity as a way to compensate for consuming alcohol (Davis et al., 2017; Graupensperger et al., 2018). Psychosocial and environmental factors that influence physical activity should be investigated in conjecture with their role in impacting alcohol consumption. For instance, future researchers should investigate how social norms interact with motivation and perceived barriers to impact both alcohol consumption and physical activity in college students (Horacek et al., 2018; N. Rhodes et al., 2019). This may shed light on factors that directly influence behavior or operate indirectly through self-efficacy or decisions to utilize public or active transportation. Researchers should consider investigating these variables in specific populations where established norms and behaviors may contribute to greater alcohol use, such as fraternities and sororities (Barry et al., 2016; N. Rhodes et al., 2019; Thompson & Romo, 2016). It may also be worth exploring, in these cases, the potential side-effects of these mechanisms. This could include additional behaviors such as compensatory eating (Abrantes et al., 2017). Researchers can utilize more advanced statistical techniques, beyond correlations, to better explain the underlying relationships between these variables. Techniques such as path analysis and multiple regression may help advance understanding of the relationships between environmental and individual factors and their effects on behavior. Lastly, the present findings support a social ecologic framework for understanding physical activity in college students. Nevertheless, more objective measures and longitudinal study designs can strengthen our understanding of factors that influence physical activity. Future studies should consider using more objective measurements where available (i.e. accelerometers for physical activity) (Shaikh et al., 2018; Towne et al., 2017). Objective measures of physical A MODEL OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY 24 activity allow for more accurate measurements of frequency, duration, and intensity (Murphy et al., 2019; Towne et al., 2017). . Future researchers should also utilize more longitudinal approaches. This will allow for more investigation into causal relationships among factors associated with physical activity (Towne et al., 2017). These findings can enhance our understanding of the relationship between individual and environmental factors. Application The use of more longitudinal approaches can be used to examine the relationship between environmental changes, psychosocial factors, and behavior. For instance, researchers may investigate the relationship of different environmental factors such as availability of various forms of transportation, neighborhood walkability, and individual factors such as self-efficacy, perceived barriers, and motivation across time. These findings may be particularly useful if data collection occurs before and after campus development changes that impact students’ ability to use active or public transportation. Interventions may be designed to target specific predictors of physical activity behavior in college students. College wellness programs, administrators, and recreation and student-life coordinators may seek to identify which factors associated with physical activity can be modified. Furthermore, they may attempt to find intervention approaches that can help increase or maintain physical activity while decreasing unhealthy behaviors, such as binge drinking. Institutions may want to target various barriers faced by college students in order to help facilitate their engagement in physical activity. Barriers at the environmental, policy, and individual or interpersonal levels of the social ecological model can be addressed. For instance, colleges and universities could enact policies that require students to enroll in mandatory physical education (PE) or lifetime activity classes. This could help reduce some of the barriers students commonly report such as not having someone to exercise with and a lack of knowledge A MODEL OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY 25 about how to exercise. Furthermore, these PE courses may help students develop more self efficacy in the ability to become active through vicarious and personal experiences. Another policy change that may increase activity is to limit the number of cars on campus. Active students may be more active because of an increased reliance on active (such as biking or walking) and public transportation over the use of cars. Moving parking to the edge of campus would likely require students to utilize active transportation to get to more central locations on campus. Symbolically this may also serve to alter the norms of transportation on campus as cars would be restricted to the outer edge. Active transportation would then become a regular behavior by while on campus, while driving would be limited to off campus activities. Colleges and universities can also leverage school pride and identity to challenge sedentary norms by seeking to establish a culture in which students choose opportunities to be active over sedentary activities. Other barriers reported by college students are not having a safe place to be active and/or a lack of time. Institutions can alter the built environment to improve safety for active transportation by increasing the number of sidewalks, adding street lights, safety patrols, and/or safety call boxes to existing and new sidewalk. The current institution has multiple campuses. Adding campus recreation centers on each campus will increase access and convenience for students. In addition to providing more gym space, institutions can provide additional well-lit recreation fields and basketball or tennis courts to provide accessible alternatives for those that aren’t on main campus. This would increase the number of safe spaces and potentially reduce transportation time. A reduction in all, or even some, of the aforementioned barriers could make engaging in physical activity a more desirable and less costly behavior, thus increasing physical activity levels across the student body. Stakeholders should take these changes, and others, into A MODEL OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY 26 consideration in future attempts to improve levels of physical activity on college campuses. These changes should include larger environmental and policy adjustments, as well as, target individual level factors. The application of social ecological models can facilitate these efforts. A MODEL OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY References 27 Abrantes, A. M., Scalco, M. D., O’Donnell, S., Minami, H., & Read, J. P. (2017). Drinking and exercise behaviors among college students: Between and within-person associations. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 40(6), 964–977. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10865-017 9863-x Allen, R., & Ross, C. M. (2013). An assessment of proximity of fitness facilities and equipment and actual perceived usage by undergraduate university students: A pilot study. Recreational Sports Journal, 37(2), 123–135. https://doi.org/10.1123/rsj.37.2.123 American College Health Association. (2014). American College Health Association-National College Health Assessment II: ACHA-NCHA II Sample Survey. American College Health Association. (2019). American College Health Association-National College Health Assessment II: Undergraduate Student Executive Summary Spring 2019. American College Health Association. Arterberry, B. J., Smith, A. E., Martens, M. P., Cadigan, J. M., & Murphy, J. G. (2014). Protective behavioral strategies, social norms, and alcohol-related outcomes. Addiction Research & Theory, 22(4), 279–285. https://doi.org/10.3109/16066359.2013.838226 Ball, J. W., Bice, M. R., & Maljak, K. A. (2018). Exploring the Relationship Between College Students’ Barriers to Exercise and Motivation. American Journal of Health Studies,

Exploring the Relationship Between Hardiness and Performance Exploring the Relationship Between Hardiness and Performance in Collegiate Baseball Players Kevin R. Lou West Virginia University, krl0018@mix.wvu.edu Follow this and additional works at: https://researchrepository.wvu.edu/etd Part of the Personality and Social Contexts Commons, and the Sports Studies Commons Recommended Citation Lou, Kevin R., "Exploring the Relationship Between Hardiness and Performance in Collegiate Baseball Players" (2020). Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports. 7972. https://researchrepository.wvu.edu/etd/7972 This Thesis is protected by copyright and/or related rights. It has been brought to you by the The Research Repository @ WVU with permission from the rights-holder(s). You are free to use this Thesis in any way that is permitted by the copyright and related rights legislation that applies to your use. For other uses you must obtain permission from the rights-holder(s) directly, unless additional rights are indicated by a Creative Commons license in the record and/ or on the work itself. This Thesis has been accepted for inclusion in WVU Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports collection by an authorized administrator of The Research Repository @ WVU. For more information, please contact researchrepository@mail.wvu.edu. Exploring the Relationship Between Hardiness and Performance in Collegiate Baseball Players Kevin R. Lou, B.S., B.A. Thesis submitted to the College of Physical Activity and Sport Sciences at West Virginia University Department of Sport Sciences in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology Scott Barnicle, Ph.D., Chair Samuel Zizzi, Ed.D. Justin Barnes, Ph.D. Department of Sport Sciences Morgantown, West Virginia 2020 Keywords: Hardiness, Personality, Objective Performance, Collegiate Baseball, Quantitative Copyright 2020 Kevin Lou Abstract Exploring the Relationship Between Hardiness and Performance in College Baseball Players Kevin Lou The purpose of this study was to explore the influence of the individual personality characteristic of hardiness on trait anxiety and objective performance within NCAA Division I collegiate baseball players. An updated version of the PVS III-R was used to measure hardiness after a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was conducted. Of the total 389 players that participated, 171 met inclusion criteria requirements and were split into two groups – hitters (N=94) and pitchers (N=80) – to identify differences in skills and how sub-constructs of hardiness affected performance through a descriptive correlational prospective design. The results show significant moderating effects of commitment for pitchers that accounted for the majority of variance in the relationship between perception of trait anxiety intensity and left on base percentage (LOB%) and wild pitches (WP). For hitters, significant moderating effects of control accounted for less variance in the relationship between perception of trait anxiety intensity on batting average on balls in play (BABIP) and double plays grounded into (GDP). The findings indicate there may be situational significance of hardiness’ moderating effect on the relationship between trait anxiety and objective performance that may not be present until runners are on base. Practitioners could use these findings to target mental skills that could build up a pitcher’s commitment or hitter’s sense of control to moderate their performance within certain situations within collegiate baseball settings. Future studies could aim to replicate this study under normal NCAA collegiate baseball seasons when possible to corroborate situational findings and the utilization of updated PVS III-R scale. Keywords: Hardiness, personality, objective performance, baseball, quantitative EXPLORING RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HARDINESS AND PERFORMANCE iii Table of Contents Exploring the Relationship Between Hardiness and Performance in College Baseball Players .... 1 Hardiness ..................................................................................................................................... 3 Method ............................................................................................................................................ 7 Participants .................................................................................................................................. 7 Inclusion Criteria ..................................................................................................................... 8 Recruitment ............................................................................................................................. 9 Design and Procedures ................................................................................................................ 9 Measures.................................................................................................................................... 10 Hardiness ............................................................................................................................... 10 Trait Anxiety.......................................................................................................................... 11 Demographics ........................................................................................................................ 11 Objective Performance Baseball Statistics ............................................................................ 12 Data Analyses ............................................................................................................................ 13 Results ........................................................................................................................................... 14 Primary Analyses ...................................................................................................................... 14 Secondary Analyses .................................................................................................................. 14 Pitching Group ....................................................................................................................... 14 Wild Pitches (WP). ............................................................................................................ 15 Left On-Base Percentage (LOB%). ................................................................................... 16 Fielding Independent Pitching (FIP). ................................................................................. 17 Hitting Group ......................................................................................................................... 18 Batting Average on Balls In Play (BABIP). ...................................................................... 18 Grounding into Double Plays (GDP). ................................................................................ 19 Weighted On-Base Average (wOBA). .............................................................................. 19 Discussion ..................................................................................................................................... 20 Pitching Group Interpretations .................................................................................................. 20 Hitting Group Interpretations .................................................................................................... 22 Practical Applications ............................................................................................................... 24 Limitations ................................................................................................................................ 27 Future Research ......................................................................................................................... 29 EXPLORING RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HARDINESS AND PERFORMANCE iv Conclusion ................................................................................................................................. 31 References ..................................................................................................................................... 33 Tables ............................................................................................................................................ 44 Figures........................................................................................................................................... 53 Appendix A: List of Hitting and Pitching Statistics and Formulas .............................................. 55 Appendix B: Hardiness Questionnaire – PVS III-R ..................................................................... 57 Appendix C: Confirmatory Factor Analyses Procedure for Updated PVS III-R Scale ................ 58 Appendix D: Competitive Trait Anxiety Questionnaire – CTAI-2 .............................................. 61 Appendix E: Demographic Questionnaire .................................................................................... 63 Appendix F: Extended Review of the Literature .......................................................................... 64 Individual Personality Characteristics Related to Competitiveness .......................................... 65 Hardiness ............................................................................................................................... 67 Hardiness Instruments. ....................................................................................................... 68 Hardiness Studies and Findings. ........................................................................................ 70 Mental Toughness.................................................................................................................. 78 Mental Toughness Instruments. ......................................................................................... 78 Mental Toughness Studies and Findings. .......................................................................... 79 Resilience............................................................................................................................... 82 Resilience Instruments. ...................................................................................................... 82 Resilience Studies and Findings. ....................................................................................... 84 Grit ......................................................................................................................................... 86 Grit Instruments. ................................................................................................................ 86 Grit Studies and Findings................................................................................................... 87 Summary of Competitiveness Characteristics........................................................................... 90 Individual Competitiveness Characteristics and Objective Performance in Sport Settings ...... 93 Future Research Directions ....................................................................................................... 98 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................... 101 EXPLORING RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HARDINESS AND PERFORMANCE 1 Exploring the Relationship Between Hardiness and Performance in College Baseball Players In the 1950s and 60s, sport personality was a widely popular field that captured researchers’ curiosities with the idea that specific personality profiles could predict successful athletic performance (Allen et al., 2013). Early researchers used inventories such as the Eysenck Personality Inventory (EPI; Eysenck & Eysenck, 1964) or the 16 Personality Factor (16PF) questionnaire developed by Cattell (1965) to attempt to predict personality profiles. Eventually, the field turned to the NEO Personality Inventory (NEO PI), developed by McCrae and Costa (1985) that combined elements of both the previous works of Cattell and Eysenck. The NEO PI measured five traits of personality, otherwise known by the acronym OCEAN, including openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism. Despite the NEO PI’s improvements upon the 16 PF and EPI, sport personality researchers still were not able to identify specific trait profiles that would determine future athletic performance. Steady research continued through the mid-1980s when researchers realized that despite the abundance of studies which had investigated sport personality, there were no clear patterns of trait profiles that existed to predict performance (Morris, 2011). Some reasons for these inconclusive patterns could be explained by the limitations of global personality measures, restrictions of personality traits across temporal settings, and/or a reliance on personality profiles as a predictor of sport performance (Allen et al., 2017). However, after a twenty-year hiatus, sport-personality researchers have recently resumed interest in the field with a different approach that focuses on individual personality characteristics and singular trait-type personality rather than a full profile of traits (Roberts & Woodman, 2017). One example of an individual personality characteristic that has gained support in the research is hardiness (Morris, 2011), while other characteristics such as trait anxiety (Spielberger, 1985) have increased in research interest as well. EXPLORING RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HARDINESS AND PERFORMANCE 2 The revival of research within the sport personality field emphasizing individual personality characteristics demonstrates the still tantalizing possibility of forecasting athletic performance. Although the efforts to define specific personality traits across a generalized population have been inconclusive so far (Morris, 2011), the continued research in this field could yield athletes, coaches, and consultants valuable information. Furthermore, certain individual personality characteristics such as hardiness have found to be dynamic and malleable over time (McAdams & Olson, 2010) and if practitioners could understand how to foster specific personality characteristics, then there may be significant advantages to be gained in performance (Roberts & Woodman, 2017). For example, similarly to hardiness, trait anxiety helps influence appraisal and coping mechanisms and previous researchers have found that positively interpreting anxiety as facilitative can help athletes perform under pressure (Hanton & Connaughton, 2002; Wadey & Hanton, 2008). Future sport-personality research could help practitioners understand and tailor individual interventions and practices to each player to encourage an athlete’s development (Allen & Laborde, 2014) and facilitate their athletic performance. In previous studies, conscientiousness had been linked to successful performance in collegiate athletes (Piedmont et al., 1999). Other researchers, such as Laborde et al. (2019), further examined this link in a recent mapping review by using a thematic analysis to map individual personality traits for sport performance onto its closest facet from the Big Five NEO. The 30 NEO-PI-R was used as a foundational framework because it captured fundamental components of human personality. One of the higher-order themes that the researchers identified was competitiveness. Within competitiveness, the thematic analysis used by the researchers identified grit, mental toughness, resilience, and hardiness as traits related to competitiveness. EXPLORING RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HARDINESS AND PERFORMANCE 3 These traits were all linked to the Big-Five trait of conscientiousness (Laborde et al., 2019). While conscientiousness has been previously linked to successful performance, the relationship between athletic performance and these four traits is unclear and necessitates more research support to help forecast future performance. Among the traits within the higher-order theme of competitiveness, grit, mental toughness, resilience, and hardiness may seem very similar and difficult to differentiate between (Price, 2019). However, researchers have faced difficulties conceptualizing the definitional construct of mental toughness (Gucciardi, 2017), have been limited by the narrow construct of resilience (Martin et al., 2015; Reivich et al., 2011), and have not been certain about grit and possible misinterpretations of statistical significance during initial studies (Crede et al., 2017). Therefore, hardiness may be the most viable construct of the four competitiveness constructs within the higher-order theme to be linked to athletic performance. Hardiness The construct of hardiness has come into focus for researchers as it meets the criteria for a personality characteristic of having both a theoretical base and allowing for developmental research (Morris, 2011). A theoretical basis of hardiness was developed by Kobasa (1979) in a landmark study where researchers investigated hardiness as a factor of whether employees of a telephone business company facing high levels of stress would fall ill. Those who reported high levels of stress and low levels of illness also reported higher levels of hardiness and had a stronger commitment to themselves, an attitude of commitment toward the environment, and an internal locus of control (Kobasa, 1979). Hardiness was thus defined by the three key factors of challenge, control, and commitment. Kobasa (1979) defined commitment as the willingness to engage oneself fully in whatever one is doing, control as the ability to influence the events of EXPLORING RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HARDINESS AND PERFORMANCE 4 their experience, and challenge as the idea that change is exciting and essential to further development. Among studies conducted on hardiness since Kobasa’s work, extant research (Eschleman et al., 2010; Florian et al., 1995) has examined hardiness’ influence in a range of sport and non sport populations. The importance and potential of hardiness can be summed up in a meta analytic study that included 180 studies investigating hardiness’ antecedents and consequences across all domains. One finding from the study included that hardiness was positively correlated with job performance (r=.17, ρ=.26, k =5, N=676) and school performance (r = .21, ρ=.23, k=3, N=623). Eschleman et al. (2010) concluded that hardiness is one of the better predictors of well being in general populations compared to other health-oriented dispositions, such as self-esteem or locus of control. Specifically, in non-sport settings such as with military training, researchers have examined the influence of hardiness as a psychological resource in Israeli Defense Forces recruits (Florian et al., 1995). Researchers found that hardiness components helped individuals appraise combat training as less threatening, feel more capable of coping, and use more coping strategies. Commitment was positively associated with secondary appraisal (r=.33), inversely related to threat appraisal (r=-.31), and the use of distancing (r=-.16) and emotion-focused coping (r=-.30). Also, patterns of appraisal and coping related to higher levels of hardiness and led to better mental health. Researchers in non-sport settings have demonstrated hardiness’ importance related to overall well-being and coping with stressful situations in military settings. The ability to improve hardiness to deal with stress and anxiety in the military could be related to similar situations found in sporting contexts. One way that hardiness has been explored within sport is its influence on sport injury. Wadey et al. (2012) monitored 694 participants over the span of two years to observe injury EXPLORING RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HARDINESS AND PERFORMANCE 5 occurrences. Researchers found that hardiness inversely correlated with injury occurrence, specifically as a participant’s hardiness score increases, their risk of injury decreases (Wald test=32.922, p<.001). Athletes who reported higher levels of hardiness experienced demanding athletic situations similarly to athletes who reported low levels of hardiness but appraised the situational demands as less stressful. The researchers hypothesized that this appraisal decreased significance of the stress response and possible future risk of injury. Individuals who reported higher levels of hardiness also transformed major life events from negative experiences into growth opportunities through appraisals, coping, and social support. Other studies with samples of 121 (Ford et al., 2000), 20 (Salim et al., 2016), and 10 (Wadey et al., 2012b) participants have also examined the relationship between hardiness and sport-injury. Outside of sport-injury, hardiness has been researched across differing competition levels. Sheard and Golby (2010) found that athletes in both individual and team sports at higher competition levels scored higher in hardiness than those at subordinate levels specifically regarding the subcomponents of commitment and control. The researchers found a significant effect for commitment between competition levels (p< .001, 2p =.05) which indicated that international competitors scored higher on commitment than national or club performers. There was also a significant effect for control (p< .001, 2p=.04). This finding was also supported by later research by Thomas et al. (2013) (Cohen’s d = .6) in the individual sport of motorcycle racing and by Golby and Sheard (2004) in rugby. Hardiness has also been examined by type of sport, specifically in high-school female-athletes (Devin et al., 2015). Researchers found that individual sport female athletes (r=0.553, p<.05) were significantly better than team sport athletes (r=0.435, p<.001) when reporting psychological hardiness and the three subcomponents of challenge, control, and commitment. Finally, researchers have also explored hardiness from a EXPLORING RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HARDINESS AND PERFORMANCE 6 qualitative point of view as Thompson and Morris (2017) conducted an intervention to promote and develop hardiness within three elite rugby players. The researchers found that hardiness was an individual personality characteristic that could be developed even with elite level athletes and recommended similar future interventions. Despite the previous research on hardiness, there has been a limited amount of research to re-examine the potential links between hardiness and objective performance. Some previous researchers have looked at hardiness as a predictor of flow in performance (Vealey & Perritt, 2015) and included hardiness as a part of a psychological skills training program in swimmers (Sheard & Golby, 2006). But still these researchers did not look specifically at the correlations between objective performance metrics and hardiness subscales. Other studies have recommended future research examining hardiness and anxiety interpretation and its relation to specific sport performance as a logical next step (Hanton et al., 2013), but there is a dearth of research in this regard. One study that has investigated the interaction between objective performance and psychological constructs was a study conducted by Zizzi et al. (2003) where researchers examined the effect of emotional intelligence among college baseball players. The researchers used performance statistics from hitters and pitchers from NCAA Division I universities over a length of a season and found a modest link between performance and emotional intelligence in pitchers (r(21) = .484, p<.05). Although this study does not specifically relate to hardiness, the methodological designs used in the study would be valuable to replicate in future studies attempting to identify possible associations between hardiness and objective performance measures that are widely available via baseball box scores. During the time since, baseball analytics has also become more nuanced and lends itself to more statistically available data that EXPLORING RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HARDINESS AND PERFORMANCE 7 would support individual objective performance. Including these new statistics would be a superlative way to add significance to studies examining associations to objective performance in baseball. Based on the need for continued research regarding the individual personality characteristic of hardiness, the present study aims to explore how hardiness may help athletes who experience anxiety perform, using objective performance metrics in NCAA Division I collegiate baseball players. This study’s research questions include: (1) how does hardiness affect objective performance for pitchers and hitters; (2) is there a moderating relationship of hardiness on trait anxiety and performance; (3) are there differences in moderation effects between pitchers and hitters? Participants Method Participants in this study included 389 male collegiate baseball players from 18 NCAA Division I baseball teams and 14 different conferences. The mean age of participants was 19.85 (SD = 1.24, range = 18-23) with 54.2% of participants reported having some experience previously with sport psychology. The mean athletic class standing was 2.25 (SD = 1.12, range = 1-6) with example codes representing freshman as 1, redshirt freshmen as 1.5, and graduate students as 6. In terms of race/ethnicity demographics, 76% (N = 296) identified as White or Caucasian, 8% (N = 30) identified as Black or African American, 7% (N = 27) identified as Hispanic or Latino, 2% (N = 7) identified as Asian or Asian-American, 3% (N = 12) identified as biracial, and 4% (N = 17) preferred not to provide information. Of the 389 participants, 32 participants did not provide identifying information and therefore their questionnaire data was not able to be matched to their performance metrics. Fifty EXPLORING RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HARDINESS AND PERFORMANCE 8 eight of the rest of the 357 players who provided identifying information did not participate in any games during the 2020 shortened season. The remaining 299 players included 138 pitchers, 148 hitters, and 13 players who both pitched and hit at some point during the shortened season. Participants were separated into two different groups – hitters and pitchers – for the purpose of separating the tasks required of different players on the baseball field. However, it was possible that players were included in both the hitting and pitching groups if they met the inclusion criteria for both. After excluding pitchers and hitters who did not meet the inclusion criteria during the shortened season, the final number of participants in the hitting and pitching groups were 94 and 80 respectively for a total of 171 participants (N=171) with three players qualifying for both groups. Inclusion Criteria In order to participate in this study, athletes had to: (1) be a listed member on the NCAA team roster; (2) provide provision of agreement to informed consent; and (3) be at least 18 years old. Inclusion criteria for hitters required at least two plate appearances per game and criteria for pitchers required at least two-thirds of an inning per outing. These inclusion criteria were modeled after a study that also measured objective performance in baseball (Zizzi et al., 2003). Due to the shortened season, teams played between 13 to 21 games before the COVID 19 global pandemic terminated the remainder of the NCAA Division I 2020 season. This is equivalent to approximately one-quarter to one-third of the total number of games that collegiate baseball seasons typically play. This range also includes more non-conference games played and fewer within-conference games than usual, as within-conference games are typically played during the middle or end of the collegiate baseball season. Using the lowest number of the games played, inclusion criteria were multiplied by 13 to reach the minimum number of at-bats or EXPLORING RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HARDINESS AND PERFORMANCE 9 innings that hitters and pitchers needed to fall within the inclusion criteria. Therefore, to be included in the study, hitters must have at least 26 official at-bats to be included and pitchers must have pitched at least 8 innings to be included. Recruitment Participants were recruited via a convenience snowball sampling method. Head coaches from 280 (94%) of the 299 total NCAA Division I baseball teams were contacted across all 32 conferences via email to ask if they were willing to let their athletes participate in the study during the offseason. Of the 280 teams that were contacted, 40 (14%) teams and coaches responded and of those, 25 (9%) teams agreed to participate. Additional information, including method of delivery of the questionnaires, the estimated time required of the athletes, and how to return the completed questionnaires to the researcher were provided to coaches who agreed to let their athletes participate. After agreeing to participate and sending out questionnaires, 18 (6%) of teams returned completed surveys comprising of the final 18 teams included in this study. Coaches and athletes who returned completed surveys were provided a follow-up report on personality and statistics from the shortened 2020 season with team-based findings to help understand the current team’s personality and performance. Design and Procedures A prospective descriptive correlational design was utilized in this study, in which participant questionnaire data was matched with publicly available objective performance statistics from the 2020 COVID-19 shortened NCAA Division I baseball season. This approach modeled the descriptive correlational design utilized in the study by Zizzi et al. (2003) to explore objective performance among baseball players. EXPLORING RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HARDINESS AND PERFORMANCE 10 After obtaining institutional review board (IRB) approval, head coaches of 280 NCAA Division I baseball teams were contacted via email. Upon agreement, informed consents forms and questionnaires were distributed either online, through a Qualtrics link, or via paper and pencil surveys sent in the mail, depending upon each team’s preference. In both scenarios, the researchers were not present during the administration or completion of the surveys, but a member of the team or a coach acted as a conduit and was given instructions to administer, collect, and send the questionnaires back. PVS III-R and CTAI-2 measures were counterbalanced before being distributed. Each completed questionnaire was given an anonymous code in order to de-identify the data after matching to each athlete’s performance data. Performance statistics were tracked through each respective baseball team’s website, which were made publicly accessible by the team after an official scorer tracked each game over the span of the season. Measures Hardiness Hardiness was originally measured using the Personal Views Survey III-R (PVS III-R), an 18-item scale with six items pertaining to each of the three sub-scales of challenge, commitment, and control (Maddi et al., 2006). PVS III-R utilized a four-point Likert scale ranging from 0 (not at all true) to 3 (very true). An example item was “Trying your best at what you do usually pays off in the end.” The PVS III-R had an internal consistency coefficient alpha of 0.80 (Maddi et al., 2006) and strong positive inter-correlations were reported between the three subcomponents of hardiness and the total hardiness scale (Maddi, 2012). For more details, please reference Appendix B. After reliability statistics on the collected responses revealed poor loadings onto the three sub-scales of hardiness, a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was conducted. This CFA led to the use of an updated PVS III-R scale which included just nine of EXPLORING RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HARDINESS AND PERFORMANCE 11 the original 18 items with three items for each subscale. The composite reliability estimate for the revised nine-item PVS-III R was 0.76. For more details on the confirmatory factor analysis process, please reference Appendix C. Trait Anxiety Trait anxiety was measured using the Competitive Trait Anxiety Inventory-2 (CTAI-2; Parfitt et al., 1990). This scale was modified from the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 (Martens et al., 1990) by editing instructions that originally asked individuals to indicate how they felt at the current moment to how they usually felt right before competition to create a trait measure. The 27-item scale consists of three subscales with nine questions for somatic anxiety, cognitive anxiety, and self-confidence and one question reverse-scored within the somatic anxiety subscale. The scale is separated into two sections measuring intensity and interpretation of trait anxiety. The first section measured the perceived intensity of pre-competition anxiety and was measured on a four-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (not at all) to 4 (very much so). The second section of the scale measured whether the athlete interpreted the anxiety as facilitative or debilitative and was measured on a seven-point Likert scale ranging from -3 (very negative or debilitative) to 3 (very positive or facilitative). An example item was “I am concerned I may not do as well in this competition as I could.” The CTAI-2 has a reported Cronbach’s alpha value of 0.83 (Perry & Williams, 1998). For more details, please reference Appendix D. Demographics Demographic information collected included each participant’s name, age, ethnicity/race, college/university, position(s) played, current jersey number, previous experience with sport psychology, if any, and other NCAA DI sports played, if any. Participant names, college/university attended, and current jersey number were used as identifying information to EXPLORING RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HARDINESS AND PERFORMANCE 12 link objective performance data to questionnaires completed by specific players. For more details on instructions and layout of demographic questionnaire, please reference Appendix E. Objective Performance Baseball Statistics In addition to objective baseball performance statistics examined in a previous study (Zizzi et al., 2003), this study included newer baseball objective performance data that are being commonly used to make analytical decisions in professional baseball organizations. This study tracked total hits, total doubles, total walks, total double plays grounded into, and total strikeouts for hitters as well as total earned runs, total walks, total hits allowed, total strikeouts, and total wild pitches for pitchers to corroborate and compare to previously conducted studies (Zizzi et al., 2003). In addition to those statistics, this study also calculated the following baseball statistics: On-Base Percentage Plus Slugging (OPS), Weighted On-Base Average (wOBA), Batting Average on Balls in Play (BABIP) for hitters and Walks Hits per Innings Pitched (WHIP), Fielding Independent Pitching (FIP), and Left On-Base Percentage (LOB%) for pitchers. Each of these statistics were averaged over the span of the 2020 shortened season. For more detailed information and formulas to calculate each statistic, please reference Appendix A. All information about what these statistics mean and how to calculate them was found on FanGraphs’ website (Slowinski, 2010). These statistics were chosen based on the feasibility of calculation using the statistics given by the game-performance results found on publicly accessible team websites. The inclusion of these statistics also helps add to the range of objective performance metrics measured in existing sport psychology literature. With the increased use of statistics such as FIP and BABIP in professional baseball organization’s decision making, inclusion of these statistics in research adds to the relevance of extant research. EXPLORING RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HARDINESS AND PERFORMANCE 13 Data Analyses Responses to questionnaires that were completed via paper and pencil were entered through a double-data entry system, once by the researcher and once by a research assistant, in order to minimize data entry errors. Responses to questionnaires that were completed through Qualtrics were downloaded and aggregated together with paper and pencil responses after completion of double-data entry system. Data collected from publicly available statistics on team websites were entered for players who had provided identifying information and consented to be included in the study. Questionnaire data were then linked to available performance data and questionnaire and demographic information were de-identified and separated based on player group. After, researchers used the previously-decided inclusion criteria of at least 26 at-bats for hitters and 8 innings for pitchers to identify which players met the inclusion criteria. Using the updated 9-item scale for the PVS III-based on CFA (Appendix C), data analyses were conducted using the updated PVS III-R scale, CTAI-2 Intensity scale, CTAI-2 Interpretation scale, and selected objective performance statistics collected from the 2020 shortened baseball season. Pearson correlations were conducted in SPSS and moderation analyses were conducted using the PROCESS add-on in SPSS (Hayes, 2012, 2013). Pearson correlation analyses were conducted for all variables within both the hardiness and trait anxiety subscales, on both pitchers and hitters’ objective performance statistics. Following the Pearson correlations, moderation analyses were then conducted to identify the moderating role of players’ hardiness on the relationship between their trait anxiety and measures of their performance. During moderation analyses, the Johnson-Neyman technique was used to probe significant interactions beyond initial conditional effects if initial significance was obtained. This technique EXPLORING RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HARDINESS AND PERFORMANCE 14 was used to supersede the arbitrary pick-a-point approach at the 16th, 50th, and 84th percentiles used in conditional effects commonly conducted in PROCESS (Hayes, 2013). Results Primary Analyses Descriptive statistics for all variables across all groups are presented in Table 1. Correlations among primary variables are presented in Tables 2 and 3 for pitchers and hitters, respectively. Overall, pitchers showed evidence of mostly weak to moderate correlations between personality characteristics and objective performance statistics. Hitters, similarly, showed evidence of mostly weak to moderate correlations between personality characteristics and objective performance statistics. Secondary Analyses Moderation analyses were conducted to examine the conditional effects of commitment in relation to pitchers and control in relation to hitters. These analyses did not include challenge as it had the weakest loading during the CFA and has previously been questioned as strong of a sub-construct as commitment and control (Sheard & Golby, 2006). Full moderation analyses data tables for pitchers and hitters are presented in Tables 4 and 6 respectively, and conditional effects using Johnson-Neyman probing technique for pitchers and hitters are presented on Tables 5 and 7 respectively. Analysis of objective performance metrics were further narrowed down to examine the moderating effect of commitment on newer objective performance statistics for the pitching group. Pitching Group For pitchers, examination of the moderating effect of commitment on the relations between trait anxiety intensity and objective performance statistics revealed that for both wild EXPLORING RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HARDINESS AND PERFORMANCE 15 pitches and left on-base percentage, all three sub-scales of trait anxiety intensity were significantly moderated by commitment while fielding independent pitching was not significantly moderated by commitment. Wild Pitches (WP). For wild pitches, cognitive anxiety intensity, β = 0.05, SE = 0.01, t = 3.53, p < 0.05, 95% CI [0.02, 0.07], somatic anxiety intensity, β = 0.04, SE = 0.01, t = 3.18, p < 0.05, 95% CI [0.02, 0.07], and self-confidence intensity, β = 0.03, SE = 0.01, t = 2.94, p < 0.05, 95% CI [0.01, 0.05] were all significantly moderated by commitment. A pitcher would like to limit the number of wild pitches thrown as wild pitches occur while runners are on-base and usually indicates the pitcher threw a ball that allowed the runner to advance to the next base. The Johnson-Neyman technique indicated that for pitchers with scores above 6.37 - or above the 54th percentile - on commitment, a significant positive relationship was found between pitcher’s cognitive anxiety intensity and number of WP thrown for pitchers scoring higher on commitment, β = 0.05, SE = 0.03, t = 1.99, p < 0.05, 95% CI [0.00, 0.10]. These findings indicate that pitchers with higher levels of commitment threw fewer wild pitches when perceiving lower intensities of their cognitive anxiety. Commitment explained more than half of the variance in wild pitches thrown (R2 = 0.24, ΔR2= 0.13). For somatic anxiety intensity, the Johnson-Neyman technique indicated that for pitchers with scores above 7.05 - or above the 73rd percentile - on commitment, a significant positive relationship was found between pitchers’ somatic anxiety intensity and number of wild pitches thrown for pitchers scoring high on commitment, β = 0.06, SE = 0.03, t = 1.99, p < 0.05, 95% CI [0.00, 0.12]. These findings indicate that pitchers with higher levels of commitment threw fewer wild pitches when perceiving lower intensities of their somatic anxiety. Commitment explained more than half of the variance in wild pitches thrown (R2 = 0.20, ΔR2= 0.11). EXPLORING RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HARDINESS AND PERFORMANCE 16 For self-confidence intensity, the Johnson-Neyman technique indicated that for pitchers with scores above 7.13 - or above the 73rd percentile - on commitment, a significant positive relationship was found between pitcher’s self-confidence intensity and number of wild pitches thrown for pitchers scoring high on commitment, β = 0.04, SE = 0.02, t = 1.99, p < 0.05, 95% CI [0.00, 0.09]. These findings indicate that pitchers with higher levels of commitment threw fewer wild pitches despite perceiving low intensities of their self-confidence. Commitment explained approximately half of the variance in wild pitches thrown (R2 = 0.18, ΔR2= 0.09). Left On-Base Percentage (LOB%). Similarly, for LOB%, cognitive anxiety intensity, β = -0.004, SE = 0.001, t = -2.95, p < 0.05, 95% CI [-0.006, -0.001], somatic anxiety intensity, β = -0.003, SE = 0.001, t = -2.72, p < 0.05, 95% CI [-0.006, -0.001], and self-confidence intensity, β = -0.002, SE = 0.001, t = -2.10, p < 0.05, 95% CI [-0.004, 0.000] were all significantly moderated by commitment. A higher LOB% identifies that a pitcher was able to prevent runners that were allowed on base from scoring. The Johnson-Neyman technique indicated that for pitchers with scores above 8.78 - or above the 88th percentile - on commitment, a significant inverse relationship was found between pitchers’ cognitive anxiety intensity and LOB% for pitchers scoring high on commitment, β = -0.008, SE = 0.004, t = -1.99, p < 0.05, 95% CI [-0.02, 0.00]. These findings indicate that pitchers with higher levels of commitment had higher LOB% when perceiving lower intensities of their cognitive anxiety. Conversely, the Johnson-Neyman technique also indicated that for pitchers with scores below 5.06 - or below the 27th percentile - on commitment, a significant positive relationship was found between pitcher’s cognitive anxiety intensity and LOB% for pitchers scoring low on commitment, β = 0.005, SE = 0.003, t = 1.99, p < 0.05, 95% CI [0.00, 0.01]. These findings indicate that pitchers with lower levels of commitment had lower LOB% when perceiving lower EXPLORING RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HARDINESS AND PERFORMANCE 17 intensities of their cognitive anxiety. Commitment explained the majority of the variance in LOB% (R2 = 0.12, ΔR2= 0.10). For somatic anxiety intensity, the Johnson-Neyman technique indicated that for pitchers with scores above 8.86 - or above the 88th percentile - on commitment, a significant inverse relationship was found between pitcher’s somatic anxiety intensity and LOB% for pitchers scoring high on commitment, β = -0.008, SE = 0.004, t = -1.99, p < 0.05, 95% CI [-0.02, 0.00]. These findings indicate that pitchers with higher levels of commitment had higher LOB% when perceiving lower intensities of their somatic anxiety. Commitment explained the majority of the variance in LOB% (R2 = 0.10, ΔR2= 0.09). For self-confidence intensity, the Johnson-Neyman technique indicated that for pitchers with scores below 4.01 - or below the 8th percentile - on commitment, a significant positive relationship was found between pitcher’s self-confidence intensity and LOB% for pitchers scoring low on commitment, β = 0.005, SE = 0.002, t = 1.99, p < 0.05, 95% CI [0.00, 0.01]. These findings indicate that pitchers with lower levels of commitment had lower LOB% when perceiving lower intensities of self-confidence, however this is limited to a small percentile and group of pitchers who scored below this low percentile. Commitment explained the majority of the variance in LOB% (R2 = 0.07, ΔR2= 0.06). Fielding Independent Pitching (FIP). For FIP, cognitive anxiety intensity, β = 0.007, SE = 0.02, t = 0.45, p > 0.05, 95% CI [-0.03, 0.04], somatic anxiety intensity, β = 0.005, SE = 0.02, t = 0.33, p > 0.05, 95% CI [-0.03, 0.04], and self-confidence intensity, β = -0.004, SE = 0.01, t = -0.33, p > 0.05, 95% CI [-0.03, 0.02] were all not significantly moderated by commitment. A pitcher’s FIP identifies a pitcher’s ability to prevent runs independent of their defense. Commitment explained minimal variance in the relationships for cognitive anxiety EXPLORING RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HARDINESS AND PERFORMANCE 18 intensity (R2 = 0.12, ΔR2= 0.002), somatic anxiety intensity (R2 = 0.12, ΔR2= 0.001), and self confidence intensity (R2 = 0.12, ΔR2= 0.001) and FIP. Hitting Group Objective performance statistical analyses for hitters were further narrowed down to examine the moderating effect of control on the relationship between trait anxiety intensity on newer objective performance statistics. Examination of the moderating effects of control revealed that control significantly moderated the relationship between somatic anxiety intensity and batting average on balls in play and the relationship between self-confidence intensity and grounding into double plays. Batting Average on Balls In Play (BABIP). For BABIP, cognitive anxiety intensity, β = 0.001, SE = 0.001, t = 1.03, p > 0.05, 95% CI [-0.001, 0.004] and self-confidence intensity, β = 0.001, SE = 0.001, t = 0.96, p > 0.05, 95% CI [-0.001, 0.002] were both not significantly moderated by control. However, somatic anxiety intensity, β = 0.003, SE = 0.001, t = 2.15, p < 0.05, 95% CI [0.00, 0.006] was significantly moderated by control on somatic anxiety intensity’s effect on a hitter’s BABIP. Similar to batting average, higher BABIPs would indicate better objective performance for hitters. The Johnson-Neyman technique indicated that for hitters with scores below 5.50 - or below the 44th percentile - on control, a significant inverse relationship was found between hitter’s somatic anxiety intensity and BABIP for hitters scoring lower on control, β = -0.004, SE = 0.002, t = -1.99, p < 0.05, 95% CI [-0.09, 0.00]. These findings indicate that hitters with lower levels of control had lower BABIPs when perceiving high intensities of their somatic anxiety. Control explained half of the variance in the relationship between somatic anxiety intensity and BABIP (R2 = 0.09, ΔR2= 0.05), but minimally for cognitive anxiety intensity (R2 = 0.05, ΔR2= 0.01) and self-confidence intensity (R2 = 0.04, ΔR2= 0.01). EXPLORING RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HARDINESS AND PERFORMANCE 19 Grounding into Double Plays (GDP). For number of double plays grounded into, cognitive anxiety intensity, β = -0.004, SE = 0.01, t = -0.36, p > 0.05, 95% CI [-0.03, .02] and somatic anxiety intensity, β = -0.02, SE = 0.01, t = -1.07, p > 0.05, 95% CI [-0.04, 0.01] were both not significantly moderated by control. However, self-confidence intensity, β = -0.01, SE = 0.007, t = -2.16, p < 0.05, 95% CI [-0.03, -0.001] was significantly moderated by control on self confidence intensity’s effect on the number of double plays grounded into. Hitters ideally would aim to avoid hitting into double plays and grounding into less double plays would represent a better hitter’s performance. The Johnson-Neyman technique indicated that for hitters with scores above 5.93 - or above the 43rd percentile - on control, a significant inverse relationship was found between hitter’s self-confidence intensity and number of double plays grounded into for hitters scoring high on control, β = -0.03, SE = 0.01, t = -1.99, p < 0.05, 95% CI [-0.05, 0.00]. These findings indicate that hitters with higher levels of control grounded into less double plays when perceiving high intensities of their self-confidence. Control explained one-quarter of the variance in the relationship between self-confidence intensity and number of double plays grounded into (R2 = 0.16, ΔR2= 0.04), but minimally for cognitive anxiety intensity (R2 = 0.08, ΔR2= 0.001) and somatic anxiety intensity (R2 = 0.09, ΔR2= 0.01) and number of double plays grounded into. Weighted On-Base Average (wOBA). For wOBA, cognitive anxiety intensity, β = 0.000, SE = 0.001, t = 0.24, p > 0.05, 95% CI [-0.002, 0.003], somatic anxiety intensity, β = 0.002, SE = 0.001, t = 1.31, p > 0.05, 95% CI [-0.001, 0.005], and self-confidence intensity, β = 0.001, SE = 0.001, t = 1.66, p > 0.05, 95% CI [0.000, 0.003] were all not significantly moderated by commitment. While batting average weighs all hits the same, wOBA weights home runs higher than singles and higher wOBA indicate better hitter performance. Control explained approximately one-third of the variance in the relationship between somatic anxiety intensity (R2 EXPLORING RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HARDINESS AND PERFORMANCE 20 = 0.06, ΔR2= 0.02) and self-confidence intensity and wOBA (R2 = 0.08, ΔR2= 0.03), but minimally for cognitive anxiety intensity and wOBA (R2 = 0.04, ΔR2= 0.001). Discussion While there have been a several studies that have examined the effect of competitive anxiety on sport performance (Lagos, 2008) and baseball specifically (Chang & Torres, 2019; Chen et al., 2019; Han, 2014; Strack, 2003), very few studies have examined the influence of personality and specifically hardiness on a player’s ability to perform in the presence of competitive anxiety in baseball. The current study provides contributions to further understand the influence of hardiness on objective performance statistics in the presence of competitive anxiety intensity within a collegiate baseball setting. This study also found similar objective performance results to previous correlational investigations found in the Zizzi et al. (2003) study. Pitching Group Interpretations It is important to interpret the results of this study within the context that each objective performance baseball statistics indicates. Among the moderating effects for pitchers, both statistically significant effects suggest that there were situational or contextual effects of commitment which may help a pitcher’s performance when perceiving high intensities of trait anxiety. Both left on base percentage and wild pitches are statistics that require the presence of runners on base and typically are considered to be higher stress or anxiety-provoking situations during games (Chang & Torres, 2019). Pitchers even change their stance on the mound from a windup position to a stretch position that is quicker and combats the likelihood or ability of a runner to steal a base against that pitcher. Pitchers may perceive their anxiety to be more intense during these situations and the data suggested that commitment moderated the effect of a pitcher’s perception of the intensity of anxiety and led to less wild pitches and higher left on-base EXPLORING RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HARDINESS AND PERFORMANCE 21 percentages. These effects were not found to be the case for fielding independent pitching. These results may indicate a more situational or state-like effect of the moderating effect of commitment on a pitcher’s objective performance. As recommended by a researcher via interview from a previous study (Zizzi et al., 2003), a useful area of future focus was situational effects that allowed pitchers to reflect on their own internal state and how it affects their performance. The results of this study seem to corroborate the situational moderating effects of commitment on a pitcher’s ability to throw fewer wild pitches and leave runners on base compared to fielding independent pitching, which is not as situational. Practitioners could use these findings to focus their interventions to improve a pitcher’s commitment during specific situations within baseball that might lead to higher anxiety moments to help pitchers increase their performance. The coefficients of determination (R2) for this groups’ moderation analyses indicate the amount of variance accounted for in pitching performance by trait anxiety intensity. For both left on-base percentage and wild pitches, the amount of R2 change that was accounted for by the moderating variable of commitment was at least half and in the case of left on-base percentage, commitment accounted for the majority of the variance between the relationship between trait anxiety and left on-base percentage. Although the overall R2 may be considered small, at higher levels of competitive sport, physical abilities become more comparable and small increases in mental skills or personality could lead to larger influences in performance outcomes (Zizzi et al., 2003). The R2 change values for both situational statistics of wild pitches and left on base percentage suggest that a large amount of variance on a pitcher’s performance during on-base situations could be influenced by a pitcher’s higher level of commitment with runners on base in the presence of trait anxiety. Especially in regard to LOB%, the majority of variance accounted EXPLORING RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HARDINESS AND PERFORMANCE 22 for by commitment suggests that improving a pitcher’s level of commitment could account for the majority of improvement in a pitcher’s LOB% and could be a focus for practitioners. Hitting Group Interpretations In comparison to the pitcher group findings, the hitter group moderation analyses of the subscale of control were mostly non-significant with the exception of one situational statistic and one non-situational statistic. These findings are particularly interesting as one significant finding was related to self-confidence while the other was somatic anxiety. In a previous study conducted by Davis and Sime (2005) within baseball, the researchers recommended sport psychologists to focus on improving self-confidence rather than reducing anxiety to help performance. However, if practitioners wanted to help baseball players address their anxiety, the findings in this study seem to provide some evidence that this could be done through development of their personality and particular subscales of hardiness. The findings indicate that practitioners could both try to improve self-confidence and address anxiety through improvement of control while for pitchers reduction of anxiety could be achieved through improvement of commitment to increase performance. Different positions require different skills from players and the findings allow practitioners to potentially target these differences in multiple ways. Similar to wild pitches for pitchers, grounding into double plays for hitters require runners on base and is also considered a negative performance statistic. Typically, grounding into double plays is not seen to be in the control of a hitter as various factors by the opposing team or umpire could affect whether the hitter actually hits into a double play and require that there are fewer than two outs as well (Slowinksi, 2010). GDP situations may elicit higher feelings of self-confidence as there is a runner on base that makes it easier for the hitter to score the runner on base to help the team rather than having to a hit a home run on their own (George, EXPLORING RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HARDINESS AND PERFORMANCE 23 1994). As a situational statistic, the results from this study indicate that hitters who believe these situations with runners on base are more in their control and perceive high levels of self confidence will ground into fewer double plays and therefore allow their team to continue to hit. Unfortunately, this statistic does not give any insight to what type of other results the hitter may have hit into such as a home run or fly-out to right field. It does suggest that high intensities of self-confidence paired with high levels of control could lead to less double plays grounded into which would allow the team more opportunities to continue hitting and score runs. The non-situational statistic that was found to be significant was a hitters’ batting average on balls in play (BABIP) which has been discussed to be more in control of a hitter than a pitcher (Slowinski, 2010). It is understood that a hitter has control over how often they decide to put the ball in play and how hard they hit it, but not if it actually ends up being a hit due to the defense or luck. When considering the results in this study, it was demonstrated that when hitters had lower feelings of control, they had lower BABIPs and higher perceptions of their somatic anxiety. Practitioners and consultants in applied sport and exercise psychology may explore ways to increase a hitter’s perception of the situation being within their control through cognitive re-appraisal (De Castella et al., 2013). This may help increase hitter’s BABIP when they perceive their somatic anxiety to be high which corroborates results found in a previous study exploring competitive anxiety in baseball players (Strack, 2003). There were no significant differences found for weighted on base average perhaps indicating that hitters do not have much control over their weighted on-base percentage which includes contributions out of their control like being hit by pitches or walks. The coefficients of determination (R2) for this groups’ moderation analyses indicate the amount of variance accounted for in hitting performance by trait anxiety intensity. For the EXPLORING RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HARDINESS AND PERFORMANCE 24 majority of moderation relationships, the amount of R2 that was accounted for by the moderating effect of control was very small. However, the relationship between somatic anxiety intensity and BABIP was accounted for by the moderating variable of control was over half. In the relationship between self-confidence intensity and grounding into double plays, control accounted for just one-quarter of the variance despite the largest R2 value among hitter group moderating effects. Although the R2 change values for hitters do not explain for as much or as many of the trait anxiety variables as pitchers, a situational statistic with runners on base was still significant moderated by control as well as a non-situational statistic which was not found in pitchers and corroborates hunches by baseball analysts (Slowinski, 2010). Practical Applications A few practical contributions can be taken from this study for consultants or practitioners when working with baseball players. First, with the findings that pitchers are largely moderated by their level of commitment during pressure or anxious situations with runners on base, practitioners could aim to increase a pitcher’s ability to reframe the intensity of the anxiety that is perceived by focusing on their commitment towards the next pitch. Reminding pitchers that during situations with runners on base, the data shows that having a higher level of commitment in the pitches that they are throwing could lead to higher LOB% and less wild pitches even if they feel a high intensity of cognitive or somatic anxiety or a low feeling of self-confidence. Using the sub-construct definition of commitment, one’s “ability to persist in whatever one is doing, even when stress rises to precarious levels” (Kobasa, 1979), practitioners could help pitchers re-focus their commitment through imagery or breathing when they feel they are in those situations. As found in a previous study that identified that breathing helped decrease heart rate variability and improved performance on the golf course (Lagos, 2008), similar focus on the EXPLORING RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HARDINESS AND PERFORMANCE 25 breath within a batter’s routine could help refocus the pitcher’s sense of commitment. These situational statistics that were found to be significant in this study could be specific situations that practitioners focus on with pitches and focus on reframing pitchers to focus on their commitment instead of the high intensity of their anxiety during those situations. Also, the results show that regardless of the type of anxiety, commitment explains the majority of moderating effects which indicates that commitment is the driving force of the improvement in these situational statistics and provides a practical avenue to address with mental skills. Hitters do not seem to have as large of a moderating effect in as many situational settings, but control seems to moderate some overall performance but not to the extent found in pitchers. This finding corroborates previous conclusions that hitters had less control over their presenting situation than pitchers did (Zizzi et al., 2003). Also, in a previous study conducted with professional baseball players in the Korean Baseball Organization, Han et al., (2014) found that skills such as imagery could provide hitters with a flexible coping method for anxiety and help with attention shifting and performance enhancement. Parallel to the findings of this study, practitioners could help hitters reappraise the somatic anxiety intensity that they perceive into their control and redirect their attention to the task of hitting through imagery could potentially improve their BABIP. Practitioners could emphasize elements that are within a hitter’s control, such as choosing certain pitches or locations to swing at when in double play situations. Additionally, imagery was found to be useful to improve self-confidence within baseball players and helped improve their performance in a study conducted by Davis and Sime (2005). With the finding that higher levels of self-confidence help hitters ground into less double plays, practitioners could work on the cognitive reappraisal (De Castella et al., 2013) of their self EXPLORING RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HARDINESS AND PERFORMANCE 26 confidence and help hitters practice brief imagery or mental rehearsals to improve their self confidence. Practitioners could use the findings of this study to target certain mental skills to help pitchers improve their commitment and hitters their sense of control. Hardiness and the sub constructs of challenge, control, commitment seem to lend themselves to mental skills and overlap with similar constructs taught to help address situational anxiety. Mental skills such as mindfulness awareness to help identify things that are within one’s control (Chen et al., 2019) could be one way to hel

A Phenomenological Photovoice Exploration of FemaleA Phenomenological Photovoice Exploration of Female Exercisers’ Experiences of their Body in Fitness Center Environments Katherine E. Fairhurst West Virginia University, kefairhurst@mix.wvu.edu Follow this and additional works at: https://researchrepository.wvu.edu/etd Part of the Health Psychology Commons, Public Health Education and Promotion Commons, Sports Studies Commons, and the Women's Health Commons Recommended Citation Fairhurst, Katherine E., "A Phenomenological Photovoice Exploration of Female Exercisers’ Experiences of their Body in Fitness Center Environments" (2020). Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports. 7546. https://researchrepository.wvu.edu/etd/7546 This Dissertation is protected by copyright and/or related rights. It has been brought to you by the The Research Repository @ WVU with permission from the rights-holder(s). You are free to use this Dissertation in any way that is permitted by the copyright and related rights legislation that applies to your use. For other uses you must obtain permission from the rights-holder(s) directly, unless additional rights are indicated by a Creative Commons license in the record and/ or on the work itself. This Dissertation has been accepted for inclusion in WVU Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports collection by an authorized administrator of The Research Repository @ WVU. For more information, please contact researchrepository@mail.wvu.edu. A Phenomenological Photovoice Exploration of Female Exercisers’ Experiences of their Body in Fitness Center Environments Katherine E. Fairhurst Dissertation submitted to the College of Physical Activity and Sport Sciences at West Virginia University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctorate of Philosophy in Kinesiology Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology Dana Voelker, Ph.D., Chair Sam Zizzi, Ed.D. Monica Leppma, Ph.D. Christy Greenleaf, Ph.D., University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee Department of Sport Sciences Morgantown, WV 2020 Keywords: Exercise Environment, Physical Activity, Embodiment, Body Image, Qualitative Copyright 2020 Katherine Fairhurst ABSTRACT A Phenomenological Photovoice Exploration of Female Exercisers’ Experiences of their Body in Fitness Center Environments Katherine E. Fairhurst For many women, the relationship with their body and exercise is complex. Exercise can have positive effects on body image, however, not all women appear to benefit positively from all types of exercise. To date, body image research has focused on exercise as an activity and less so on the context in which exercise is performed. Women frequently exercise in fitness centers as young adults which, unfortunately, is associated with body dissatisfaction. Using an Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) approach with Photovoice methodology, we explored young adult women’s lived body experiences while exercising in fitness centers. A purposive sample of 11 women (Mage= 21.9 years) completed a two-phase study: (1) a two-week photography period and (2) a 60-90-minute, photo-elicited interview via Skype™. Three identified themes pertained to the sociocultural fitness setting, participants’ fitness experiences, and how participants navigated their ‘place’ while exercising in fitness centers. Participants experienced a segregated fitness center environment driven by gender, the absence of female representation on machines, and “no place for women” in weightlifting areas. Interestingly, these negative experiences were buffered by self-compassion-based textual messages on walls and mirrors and dress codes which encouraged a harmonious relationship with their body while exercising. In light of these experiences, participants shared negotiating strategies (e.g., seeking private sub-spaces, challenging gender norms). This study elucidates the complexity of body experiences for young adult women in fitness settings and informs the development of exercise spaces that empower women to build a healthy relationship with their body through exercise. BODY EXPERIENCES OF FEMALE EXERCISERS IN FITNESS CENTERS iii Acknowledgements I would like to thank my family, friends, and mentors who have helped me through every hill and valley of this process – my gratitude for your support is endless. I thank Dr. Dana Voelker for challenging my insecurities, reaffirming my capabilities when my imposter syndrome reared its ugly head, and her constant reminders to take charge of my process. I am grateful for her unwavering standard of excellence and I could not be more appreciative of her guidance. I thank my committee members, Dr. Sam Zizzi who helped me keep healthy perspective and challenged me in my approach to the research, Dr. Monica Leppma who reminded me of the importance of self-compassion and self-acceptance, not only in the research but with myself, and Dr. Christy Greenleaf, who’s early enthusiasm and support for my project gave me the confidence to jump all in. Thank you to Karly Casanave, a fellow graduate student, for her commitment and perspective – from the first time she expressed interest in contributing to this project to the final draft, the quality of the research has been elevated ten-fold because of her contribution. I would also like to thank Melinda Gallagher and Candice Brown, two research assistants whose skills far surpassed that of undergraduates – I’m grateful for your passion, commitment, and hunger to learn. Thank you to my colleagues and peers who read drafts, provided feedback, gave pep talks, and gave me the space to feel the full range of emotions that comes with the dissertation process; thank you Carra Johnson, Sofia Espana Perez, Matt Gonzalez, Adam Hansell, Dr. Robert Hilliard, Dr. Erika Van Dyke, Seth Swary, Bill Way, Dr. Zenzi Huysmans, Tommy Minkler, and Blake Costalupas. As a final thank you, I thank my family. My parents, Barry and Lise, they are the foundation of who I am as a person, woman, helper, and giver. The Garretts, Gary and Melissa, who stepped in and adopted me into their family, took care of me and loved me when my family was far away. Shane, who has been by my side through it all. He was a source of unconditional love and late-night motivational speeches. He believed in me more than I did and made me laugh Every. Single. Day. BODY EXPERIENCES OF FEMALE EXERCISERS IN FITNESS CENTERS iv Table of Contents A Phenomenological Photovoice Exploration of Female Exercisers’ Experiences of their Body in Fitness Center Environments .......................................................................................................... 1 Methods and Materials ................................................................................................................ 4 Participants .............................................................................................................................. 5 The Interviewer ........................................................................................................................ 6 Procedure ................................................................................................................................. 7 Data Analysis ........................................................................................................................... 9 Trustworthiness ..................................................................................................................... 10 Results and Discussion .............................................................................................................. 12 The Fitness Setting through a Sociocultural Lens ................................................................. 12 The Fitness Experience .......................................................................................................... 15 Navigating Their ‘Place’ ....................................................................................................... 25 Conclusions and Implications ................................................................................................... 30 Appendix A: Extended Introduction ............................................................................................. 41 Basic Assumptions .................................................................................................................... 41 Limitations of the Study ............................................................................................................ 41 Definition of Terms ................................................................................................................... 43 Appendix B: Extended Methods ................................................................................................... 45 Interpretative Phenomenological Study Design ........................................................................ 45 Phenomenology as a theoretical lens ..................................................................................... 45 Hermeneutic phenomenology ................................................................................................ 46 The role of the body in the social world ................................................................................ 47 Phenomenology as a methodology ........................................................................................ 48 Researcher positionality ........................................................................................................ 49 Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis ............................................................................ 51 PhotoVoice approach within phenomenology ....................................................................... 52 Study Setting ............................................................................................................................. 52 Recruitment ............................................................................................................................... 54 Recruitment Flyer ...................................................................................................................... 56 Cover Letter............................................................................................................................... 57 Initial Phone Interview .............................................................................................................. 59 Photography Log Book ............................................................................................................. 63 BODY EXPERIENCES OF FEMALE EXERCISERS IN FITNESS CENTERS v Photo Retrieval Process ............................................................................................................. 64 Skype™ Interview Guide .......................................................................................................... 66 Appendix D: Case Summaries ...................................................................................................... 68 Case Summary: P1 (Sam) ......................................................................................................... 68 Case Summary: P2 (Lex) .......................................................................................................... 72 Case Summary: P3 (Bri) ........................................................................................................... 75 Case Summary: P4 (Emi) .......................................................................................................... 79 Case Summary: P5 (Amy)......................................................................................................... 81 Case Summary: P6 (Ali) ........................................................................................................... 85 Case Summary: P7 (Mya) ......................................................................................................... 88 Case Summary: P8 (Eve) .......................................................................................................... 92 Case Summary: P9 (Zoe) .......................................................................................................... 95 Case Summary: P10 (Ann) ........................................................................................................ 97 Case Summary: P11 (Kay) ........................................................................................................ 99 Appendix D: Extended Literature Review .................................................................................. 102 Body Image ............................................................................................................................. 102 Body Image and Sociocultural Pressures ............................................................................ 104 Body Pressures in Sport ....................................................................................................... 108 Body Pressures in Exercise Contexts .................................................................................. 117 Fitness center environments .................................................................................................... 128 Summary .............................................................................................................................. 131 BODY EXPERIENCES OF FEMALE EXERCISERS IN FITNESS CENTERS 1 A Phenomenological Photovoice Exploration of Female Exercisers’ Experiences of their Body in Fitness Center Environments Western cultures are preoccupied with the gendered body (i.e., masculinity versus femininity) and emphasize appearance as a cultural value linked with identity and self-worth (see Bordo, 2004). Since the 1970s, failure to obtain the socially-constructed body ideal has led to an increased prevalence of body dissatisfaction, especially among women (Neighbors & Sobal, 2007). Women often attempt to change their body to achieve the feminine standard of thinness and beauty and, although most women will never achieve the cultural body ideal, many relentlessly work toward it through unhealthy diets and exercise (Voelker & Reel, 2015). In general, exercise has well-established physical benefits (e.g., Biddle & Mutrie, 2007), and enhances a range of psychological factors, including body image (Campbell & Hausenblas, 2009). Body image is a complex, multidimensional, psychological experience of embodiment, encompassing body-related self-perceptions, thoughts, feelings, and behaviors (Cash, 2004). Several meta-analyses have explored the effects of exercise on individuals who report body concerns. For example, Reel and colleagues (2007) found that exercise positively affected body image for both men and women, with anaerobic exercise (i.e., weight training) generating a stronger effect than aerobic exercises (i.e., jogging). Similarly, Campbell and Hausenblas (2009) found a significant effect for exercise on body image with no significant differences across several moderating factors, including exercise duration or length of intervention. Although research supports the positive effects of exercise on body image, much of this research focused primarily on exercise as an activity without accounting for the influence of context, or the sociocultural setting, in which exercise is performed. Therefore, to fully understand women’s body image, particularly in relation to exercise, researchers must conceptualize these phenomena BODY EXPERIENCES OF FEMALE EXERCISERS IN FITNESS CENTERS 2 as environmentally-influenced experiences rooted within a rich sociocultural and historical context (see Cash, 2012). The evolution of the fitness industry developed from the popularity of bodybuilding in the 1970’s (Andreasson & Johansson, 2014) and the social movement brought on by men who stayed home from the Vietnam war (Stern, 2008). Accordingly, fitness centers were established as places that valued the physical dominance of men (Klein, 1993), and prioritized strength training. Through the 1980’s, the feminist movement and the rise of women’s sports (Stern, 2008) encouraged women to engage in exercise for diverse, complex, and often paradoxical reasons. For example, feminist ideology deemed it necessary for women to display physical strength and independence to be perceived as socially empowered (Gottleib, 1981, as seen in Stern, 2008). Simultaneously, the body ideal expectations for women reinforced femininity, sexual attractiveness, and thinness-informed beauty (Silverstein, Peterson, & Perdue, 1986), as reflected in society’s message: ‘…if you only ate better and worked out more, you would be prettier and more successful in life and, especially, with men’ (Stern, 2008, p. 9). In turn, aerobics classes and cardiovascular workouts were recommended as the preferred method of exercise for women due to their emphasis on weight loss and toning (Stern, 2008). The popularity of Jane Fonda’s 1980’s aerobics videos reinforced gender norms in fitness centers, solidifying the expectation that women should use cardiovascular machines and aerobics classes while ‘real’ men engaged in strength training (Dworkin, 2003). Originally, the bodybuilding subculture was exclusively a male domain, however, the feminist movement and a shift in the ideal body has since attracted more women into the strength training areas of fitness centers (Andreasson & Johansson, 2014). Communicated through ‘fitspiration’ messaging, the contemporary ‘fit ideal’ for women depicts increased muscularity, BODY EXPERIENCES OF FEMALE EXERCISERS IN FITNESS CENTERS 3 characterized by toned, lean physiques and extremely low body fat (Boepple, Ata, Rum, & Thompson, 2016; Parviainen & Aromaa, 2017). Young adult women, approximately one third of whom exercise in fitness centers (Slater & Tiggemann, 2006), are a targeted ‘fitspiration’ audience (see Robinson, Prichard, Nikolaidis, Drummond, Drummond, & Tiggemann, 2017). Fitness centers can offer young adult women an important context to develop a healthy and empowered relationship with exercise that supports a positive body image, and generally, fitness centers intend to create a positive exercise climate. Unfortunately, fitness centers are often characterized by numerous features (e.g., full-length mirrors, posters which idealize the female body) that communicate and reinforce unique appearance pressures for young adult women (Prichard & Tiggemann, 2005). Internalizing these appearance pressures is associated with self objectification or the habitual monitoring of one’s outward appearance (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997), which can contribute to body image concerns and unhealthy weight management practices (e.g., over-exercising, disordered eating; Chang, Pan, & Shu, 2018). Thus far, research on body image demonstrates that fitness centers have a formative impact on young adult women’s exercise experiences (e.g., Prichard & Tiggemann, 2005; 2012), particularly during a critical developmental period where self-consciousness is heightened (Noll & Fredrickson, 1998) and fitness center participation is high (Slater & Tiggemann, 2006). However, few studies have examined socioculturally-informed body experiences specifically within the context of fitness centers. The developmental theory of embodiment (DTE; Piran, 2017) outlines pathways through which women experience their body and presents a rich framework for exploring this phenomenon. DTE encompasses the interactions between women and their social environments and their embodied experiences in those environments. Uniquely, DTE not only addresses negative experiences and pressures but also honors facilitative, BODY EXPERIENCES OF FEMALE EXERCISERS IN FITNESS CENTERS 4 empowering experiences and social factors, promoting this theory as a holistic framework for exploring young adult women’s complex exercise experiences. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to explore young adult women’s lived experiences of their body while exercising in fitness centers. The following research questions guided the study: (a) how do young adult women exercisers experience their body (e.g., weight, shape, size, appearance) while exercising in fitness centers? and (b) what specific elements of their fitness center environments do they perceive to positively, and negatively, influence how they experience their body (e.g., weight, shape, size, appearance) within the fitness center setting? Ultimately, this study provides insight on how exercise professionals can advocate for fitness environments that cultivate a healthy body culture and empower young adult women to engage in healthy relationships with themselves and exercise. Methods and Materials An Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) approach (Pietkiewicz & Smith, 2014), with a Photovoice method (Wang & Burris, 1994; 1997), was used in this study. In accordance with the hermeneutic phenomenology tradition, the first author was interested in historicality (Laverty, 2003); that is, how a person’s lived experience, and understanding of the world, is enmeshed with their historical, cultural, and social contexts (Munhall, 1989). To examine a lived experience within this tradition, detailed descriptions of an individual’s background, pre-understandings, co-constitution, and interpretation provide context for how a person makes meaning of their experiences (Benner & Wrubel, 1989). Background is defined as a personal history – an inextricable part of a person that culture imparts on them from birth – and is used to explain how people can experience similar phenomena in different ways (Kerry & Armour, 2000). Heidegger (1927/1962) used the term pre-understandings to describe the BODY EXPERIENCES OF FEMALE EXERCISERS IN FITNESS CENTERS 5 structure of a culture as it exists, prior to a person’s interaction with, and interpretation of, that culture. Co-constitution relates to pre-understandings as it highlights the link between a person and the world such that ‘we are constructed by the world in which we live, and, at the same time, we perceive the world from our own experience and background’ (Kerry & Armour, 2000, p. 6). Finally, Heidegger (1927/1962 as cited in Taylor, 1985) argued that every social interaction involves interpretation - humans are self-interpretative beings, constantly redefining the self through acts of interpretation of the culture in which they exist. Consistent with the idiographic approach of IPA (Pietkiewicz & Smith, 2014), this study was based on photo-elicited, semi structured interviews with a small sample of young adult women recruited through purposive sampling. To capture the real time, lived experience of women’s body experiences in fitness centers, this study used a Photovoice method (Wang, 1999). The Photovoice approach used represents a blended process of photography and narratives to explore social issues (Wang & Burris, 1994; 1997). Photovoice allowed the first author to richly describe and visualize participants’ perceptions of their everyday realities. This was accomplished by allowing participants to (a) document, with personal expression, factors in fitness centers that were integral in their interpretation of their body experiences during exercise and (b) describe, in depth, their lived experience of interacting with those factors through photos captured. Participants Participants were 11 young adult women aged 18-25 years (Mage = 21.8 years) who identified as white (n = 10) and white/Native American (n = 1). As active exercisers, they attended their current fitness center for an average of 1.74 years, exercising 4-7 days per week (M = 4.55 days/week) at college campus recreation centers (n = 3), commercial chains (n = 3), independent studios (n = 2), CrossFit (n = 1), and employee wellness facilities (n = 2) across four BODY EXPERIENCES OF FEMALE EXERCISERS IN FITNESS CENTERS 6 states (see Table 1). All the participants were former competitive athletes who transitioned into exercising in fitness centers after sport. Two women reported continued participation in competitive sport during the study. Table 1 Demographic Characteristics of Participants Based on Inclusion Criteria Pseudonym Age Occupation Type of Fitness Center Days/week at Fitness Center Sam 25 Employed Full-Time Commercial Chain 3 Lex 23 Graduate Student College Recreation Center 5 Bri 22 Graduate Student Independent Studio 6 Emi 20 Undergraduate Student CrossFit Gym 5 Amy 21 Graduate Student Commercial Chain 4.5 Ali 24 Employed Full Time/Graduate Student Commercial Chain 3 Mya 19 Undergraduate Student Independent Studio 5.5 Eve 24 Employed Full-Time Employee Wellness Facility 5 Zoe 18 Undergraduate Student College Recreation Center 4.5 Ann 20 Undergraduate Student College Recreation Center 4 Kay 24 Employed Full-Time Employee Wellness Facility 4.5 The Interviewer Hermeneutic phenomenology aligns with the first author’s relativist ontological position, (i.e., the interviewer); she acknowledges the existence of multiple realities which are interpreted through the co-construction of experience throughout the participant-researcher exchange (Ponterotto, 2005). The first author participated in elite aesthetic sport for 15 years followed by regular exercise in fitness centers, which was fueled by appearance-focused motives. The first author has a history of a negative relationship with her body and exercise, eating pathology, and exercise dependence. She has since engaged in an active self-growth journey of mindfulness and self-compassion, from which she developed a healthy, empowered identity as a woman in fitness. Additionally, the first author has post-secondary training in mental health counseling and BODY EXPERIENCES OF FEMALE EXERCISERS IN FITNESS CENTERS 7 is a Certified Personal Trainer with experience training young adult women. Throughout this study, the first author consistently examined her personal assumptions by practicing Le Vasseur’s (2003) stance of persistent curiosity – simultaneously being mindful of her role in the interpretation of the phenomenon while being open to fresh and new perceptions that might occur. This stance of curiosity allowed rich data interpretation as it created a nonjudgmental and compassionate space for the first author and the participants to openly discuss potentially sensitive experiences. Procedure Upon Institutional Review Board approval, convenience and snowball sampling methods were used to identify potential participants. Flyers with eligibility criteria were posted to social media outlets and sent via email to contacts who may know interested participants (e.g., colleges, fitness centers, fitness professionals). Maximum variation sampling (Patton, 2001) was employed relative to type and culture of community-based fitness centers. Interested participants who contacted the first author engaged in a short screening call to confirm eligibility, answer questions, obtain informed consent, and schedule the study. Data collection occurred in two phases: (1) initial phone interview followed by a two-week photography period and (2) a 60-90 minute Skype™ interview followed by member reflections. Each phase was piloted with two young adult female exercisers aged 23 and 25 years old to test the feasibility and clarity of the study protocol; the pilot study informed changes that clarified participant scheduling and photography instructions. Phase 1. The first phase of data collection consisted of audio-recorded phone interviews, guided by a script, to build rapport and understand the participants’ perceptions of physical and cultural aspects of the fitness culture and their individual fitness centers. The initial phone call BODY EXPERIENCES OF FEMALE EXERCISERS IN FITNESS CENTERS 8 was also used to provide instructions for taking photographs over a two-week period with a digital camera. Instructions were to (a) take pictures with the camera embedded in their cellular smartphone, (b) focus their photography toward the directive prompt that was provided, (c) document additional notes or insights not captured in the photographs using a ‘log book’ (Plunkett, Leipert, & Ray, 2013), and (d) indicate their preference for phone or text reminders during the photography period. These interviews lasted between 17-29 minutes. To complete the two-week photography task, participants were prompted with the ‘photography mission’ (Nykiforuk, Vallianatos, & Nieuwendyk, 2011, p. 109) to ‘take photographs of elements in your fitness center that are encouraging, and discouraging, to how you feel, think, and perceive your body while exercising’. Encouraging was defined as to ‘inspire with courage, spirit, and hope’ (Merriam-Webster, 2020), and discouraging was defined as to ‘make less determined, hopeful, or confident’ (Merriam-Webster, 2020). Minimal direction beyond this prompt was given, nor a minimum number of required photographs, to promote participant-driven exploration. Phase 2. The second phase of data collection consisted of audio-recorded, photo-elicited, semi-structured interviews via Skype™ (i.e., 34-80 minutes in length) to capture participants’ background, pre-understandings, co-constitution and interpretation of the phenomenon. To begin, the first author asked about the participants’ personal histories in relation to exercise (e.g., ‘What motivated you to begin exercising in a fitness center?’), relationship with exercise (e.g., ‘How would you describe how you feel about exercise?’), perceptions of the fitness culture, and motivations for exercising in a fitness center. Second, questions guided participants in describing their photographs using the screen-sharing function of Skype™. To maintain phenomenological consistency, participants were given the freedom to select the most descriptive and salient BODY EXPERIENCES OF FEMALE EXERCISERS IN FITNESS CENTERS 9 photographs and were prompted to elaborate on the photographs using questions derived from the SHOWeD method, a photovoice approach to interviewing (i.e., ‘What do you see here?’, ‘How does this relate to your life?’, ‘Why does this situation exist?’; Wang, 1999). Third, participants were asked to discuss ideas that may not have been captured through their photography (e.g., ‘What other factors, not captured by photographs, are encouraging to your body image while exercising? Discouraging?’). Finally, participants were encouraged to share their general perceptions of women in fitness (e.g., ‘Reflecting on this experience, what meaning does exercising in a fitness center give your body?’). Upon the completion of phase 2, each participant received a $25 electronic gift card to Amazon.com. Data Analysis Throughout each interview, the first author made reflections on the interview experience including aspects of content, language use, context, and any noteworthy comments related to personal reflexivity (Pietkiewicz & Smith, 2014). All interviews were transcribed verbatim while coding any identifying information with a pseudonym and photo-editing to protect participant confidentiality. Pietkiewicz and Smith’s (2014) practical guide for IPA in qualitative research was followed to analyze the data. In general, IPA provides flexible guidelines which can be adapted to the researchers’ unique research objectives and questions. Phase 1 interview data were used to describe the participants, understand their exercise history, and elucidate their perceptions of the sociocultural context of fitness. Phase 2 interview data were used to give depth, description, and interpretation to the participants’ photographs. Member reflection data were used to reflect the first author’s interpretation and thematic representation of the participants’ experiences back to the participants. BODY EXPERIENCES OF FEMALE EXERCISERS IN FITNESS CENTERS 10 To analyze the data, the first author engaged in multiple readings and note making of the transcripts and listened to the audio recordings of each interview. Next, the analysis included transforming notes into emergent themes by working mostly from notes to formulate concise phrases that captured a higher level of abstraction while remaining rooted in each participant’s account. The final stage of analysis consisted of seeking relationships and clustering themes where the previously formulated concise phrases were analyzed to seek relationships between phrases. These concise phrases were clustered into themes according to conceptual and interpretative similarities and subthemes were included to capture essential depth and nuance. . Trustworthiness In addition to prolonged engagement and triangulation from multiple data sources (e.g., log books, verbal reflection; Yardley, 2008), the first author developed written case summaries based on interview transcripts, photographs, and analyses to clarify main ideas, note initial interpretations, and identify follow-up questions for clarification and further participant reflection. These case summaries served as the basis for member reflections via phone with each participant and afforded an additional opportunity for the participant and first author to co participate in reflection of interpretation more broadly and the interview data specifically (Smith & McGannon, 2018). All 11 participants were contacted for member reflections; nine responded and completed a phone call lasting 10 to 20 minutes. As the first author shared her interpretations through case descriptions, some of the participants provided additional insight after engaging in more reflection. The first author recorded participants’ comments and insights to the case summaries. Additionally, the third author acted as a ‘critical friend’ at multiple points during the analysis (Smith & McGannon, 2018). The role of a critical friend is to encourage critical BODY EXPERIENCES OF FEMALE EXERCISERS IN FITNESS CENTERS 11 dialogue between researchers; a theoretical sounding board to reflect on alternative interpretations that might emerge during the analysis process (Smith & McGannon, 2018). The critical friend role provided additional perspective and encouraged the first author’s reflexive approach. Specifically, in reviewing the initial notes of each participant, the third author identified similarities between the raw data and the emergent themes, suggesting that the interpretation required increased rigor. The third author also highlighted similarities in data interpretations across clustering of the emergent themes early in the analysis process, which clarified and refined subsequent steps. Importantly, the third author consistently encouraged the first author’s reflexivity process by asking challenging questions. For example, the first and third authors have a range of body-related experiences in fitness, allowing the third author to offer alternative perspectives for initial interpretations (e.g., Does the participant’s hesitation to answer represent discomfort or reflection? What differentiates the fitness center areas objectively by gender? How? Why are women in this study so strongly driven to find comfort in their fitness center?). This reflective process allowed the first author to maintain perspective on her positioning with the data and maintain alignment with the phenomenon being explored. Finally, the second author completed a series of ‘abridged audits’ conducted in accordance with recommendations from Smith, Flowers, and Larkin (2009). These ‘abridged audits’ consisted of the second author (faculty advisor) reviewing a single interview transcript annotated with initial notes and emergent themes. The auditor then critically reviewed the annotations for trustworthiness, transparency, and credibility including a logical step-by-step path from the text to formulation of themes (Smith, Flowers, & Larkin, 2009). Four individual abridged audits were completed during the analysis. BODY EXPERIENCES OF FEMALE EXERCISERS IN FITNESS CENTERS 12 Results and Discussion Through the Photovoice data, participants interpreted, and found meaning in, their body through a shared experience which described power and gender dynamics while exercising in this unique context. In the sections that follow, we elucidate each of the three over-arching themes, namely the sociocultural fitness setting, their fitness experiences, and how they navigated their sense of ‘place’ while exercising in fitness centers. The Fitness Setting through a Sociocultural Lens How the participants experienced their body while exercising was uniquely informed by their perceptions of the fitness culture. This theme, the fitness setting through a sociocultural lens, details the participants’ pre-understandings of the context of fitness – the social, historical, and cultural landscape of fitness from both broader society and within their specific fitness centers. When asked to share their perceptions of the fitness culture broadly, all the participants described appearance expectations communicated by social media (e.g., Instagram). Participants specifically described an unrealistic fit ideal characterized by a muscular body with ‘six pack abs’ (Eve), ‘cuts [sic] in her arms’ (Amy), ‘definition without bulking up’ (Amy), and an ‘hourglass figure - flat stomach’ (Mya) that is also ‘curvy, the way a woman should be’ (Sam). In perpetuating this fit ideal, some participants explained that social media has ‘become more about your appearance and less about the healthy lifestyle’ (Lex). Bri shared: Fitness influencers on Instagram for sure - I’ve seen a negative influence in that [sic] because they’re spewing out all this information and they might not even be a certified personal trainer. They might be extremely fit and say, “you need to do this for your body” and people get discouraged if they don’t look like that. It’s kind of just this negative society. BODY EXPERIENCES OF FEMALE EXERCISERS IN FITNESS CENTERS 13 These notions are consistent with research examining the fit ideal across ‘fitspiration’ websites, which have been found to overemphasize the importance of appearance and provide controversial recommendations, such as over-exercising and restrictive dieting (Boepple, Ata, Rum, & Thompson, 2016), to which participants in our study were acutely aware. As part of the fit ideal, participants described expectations, communicated by athletic apparel companies, to wear tight, form-fitting, and revealing clothing while exercising. Eve explained: ‘there’s now clothing lines that are geared towards – like you [need to] have this specific body type to pull off, like just a sports bra. When was the last time you cared about what you look like when you’re going to the gym?!’ Ali similarly expressed: ‘…but I just want to wear my black leggings and a big sweatshirt. And then I feel like people are going to judge me…’. This fear of judgement is consistent with literature suggesting that being taken seriously in a fitness environment is associated with wearing ‘purpose-made, gym-specific’ clothing (Sassatelli, 1999, p. 231) and ‘creates a fuzzy line between health and being perfect’ for women (Fisher, Berbary, & Misener, 2018, p. 486), even prior to entering the fitness center to exercise. In pursuit of the fit ideal in the ‘right’ clothes, participants described women’s motivations to exercise as appearance-focused, as Zoe described: ‘I don’t think many girls have ever walked into a gym not because there was something that they wanted to fix’. Mya even noted that individuals will pursue the fit ideal with extreme, self-punishing workouts: ‘People that don’t classify themselves as fit, if they don’t look the part, what they say is “I’m dying at the gym”, or “killing myself at the gym”. They have to hurt themselves to look like that, you know?’ Research suggests that exposure to, and the pursuit of, the fit ideal is associated with a range of negative experiences. Observing ‘fitspiration’ content on social media, for example, has been shown to increase body dissatisfaction in young adult women (Robinson, Prichard, Nikolaidis, BODY EXPERIENCES OF FEMALE EXERCISERS IN FITNESS CENTERS 14 Drummond, Drummond, & Tiggemann, 2017) while wearing fashionable, tight-fitting clothes has been shown to increase self-objectification and -surveillance (Prichard & Tiggemann, 2005). Participants in the current study recognized that an appearance-focused fitness culture is misguided, such that the fit ideal for women is unrealistic and fails to embrace body diversity. In addition to strict body- and apparel-expectations from broader society, participants also described the presence of strong gender norms in their fitness centers, which were perceived negatively. Zoe noticed how her fitness center was separated by gender-stereotyped exercise modalities: I don’t even know if [the fitness center] says much about women. The main gym is for weightlifting and I don’t really think the way that it’s designed gives a place for women. Conveniently, cardio, which is what a lot of women do, is in a whole separate space and all of the classes are held in completely different areas of the gym. So, I think subconsciously and, hopefully not on purpose, it was designed in a way that put women elsewhere. My guess is that it was probably a – the person who probably did [sic] the layout of the gym was probably a white male. Early literature suggested that fitness centers were historically masculine institutions that prioritized the physical dominance of men (Klein, 1993) and were designed in ways that reinforced gender segregation (Craig & Liberti, 2007). For Ali, the fitness center was experienced in a gender-segregated way which ultimately influenced her early perceptions of where women belong in fitness: …rec center had a lot of different rooms. One room would be cardio, one room would be the weight machines, and then another would be the regular weights. And the room with the regular weights, there was all the big-time weightlifter BODY EXPERIENCES OF FEMALE EXERCISERS IN FITNESS CENTERS 15 guys and stuff and no girls, so it wasn’t really comfortable going in there, so I’d just stick with the cardio machines - I guess it’s like specific areas for specific people. These findings are consistent with evidence that fitness centers are built in ways that reinforce gender lines and segregation by structurally separating cardiovascular equipment intended for women from weight training machines intended for men (Dworkin, 2003). In sum, the participants’ pre-understandings of the broad fitness culture included strict, appearance-focused body expectations, apparel standards for women, and fitness centers characterized by gender stereotypes and norms which, ultimately, were perceived as unwelcoming to women in fitness. The Fitness Experience Exercising within the context of fitness centers resulted in a complex experience for the participants. Through the Photovoice data, this theme, The Fitness Experience, elucidates common factors, discouraging and then encouraging, of the participants’ fitness centers that influenced how they interacted with the setting and how they experienced their body while exercising there. Discouraging factors. Participants perceived their fitness centers to be dominated by factors that were discouraging to their body experiences while exercising. Participants felt that fitness centers represented a space primed for self-evaluation. The presence of large mirrors, machines, as well as men gazing directly upon women in the weight area were identified as some of the common triggers. As such, the structural aspects of the exercise space itself represented a male-only, hegemonic masculine space which: ‘just turns [women] away, where it’s already like a men’s club. So, you’ve already turned away like 90 percent of women’ (Zoe). For example, Sam captured the masculine-dominated representation on weight machines at her fitness center: BODY EXPERIENCES OF FEMALE EXERCISERS IN FITNESS CENTERS 16 ‘on all weighted machines - it’s the musculature of a man. It just goes back to being like “oh this is a man’s workout”. Like, fitness is for a man - kind of got a little bit of sexism in there.’ Figure 1 “This is a man’s workout” by Sam The presence of the male musculature on weight machines reinforced the message that weight training is for heteronormative men. Interestingly, the presence of this factor not only perpetuated hegemonic masculinity, but the absence of female representation was noted to increase the risk of self-doubt about belonging in the weight area. When asked to interpret what this meant to her about her exercising body, Sam declared: ‘oh, if I do these exercises I’m going to look like a dude.’ She elaborated on her personal frustrations at the gender expectations placed on women in fitness: ‘I mean, [it’s] like they’re afraid of a strong woman.’ In recent research, women have described this experience as being crowded out of spaces because of hegemonic BODY EXPERIENCES OF FEMALE EXERCISERS IN FITNESS CENTERS 17 masculinity and, as a result, felt the pressure to minimize their presence in male-dominated areas of the fitness center (Coen, Rosenberg, & Davidson, 2018). In our study, not only was this message communicated by the predominance of male representation on weight machines, but also through the absence of actual equipment designed for women who lift weights. Traditional weightlifting bars are designed differently for men and women. For example, Rogue Fitness (2020) provides a ‘Men’s Ohio’ bar and a ‘Women’s Bella’ bar. The Bella bar is a bar length of 75.13”, bar diameter of 25mm, and weight of 15kg, which is smaller than the men’s Ohio bar which is 86.75” in length, 28.5mm in diameter, and 20kg in weight. The differences are deliberate to accommodate purported differences in center of gravity and weight distribution and differences in hand and grip size between sexes (Rogue, 2020). Zoe, a member of a weightlifting club, photographed the barbells at her fitness center: Figure 2 “They don’t understand the difference” by Zoe BODY EXPERIENCES OF FEMALE EXERCISERS IN FITNESS CENTERS 18 I don’t know why they won’t just buy women’s bars. The idea that it’s a men club is kind of pushed. Like, “this is a place for like guys to come and lift and get swole” and, you know, a girl at the rig sticks out like a sore thumb. For many of the participants in our study, discomfort and fear of evaluation were salient experiences due to being highly visible as a woman in the male-dominated weight area. Many of the participants also described avoiding certain machines that triggered an uncomfortable, self conscious experience. The assisted pull-up machine was photographed as a salient symbol for this threatening experience. Kay shared her vulnerability related to this machine - fear in her ability to perform the exercise and self-deprecating conclusions about her eating habits, weight, and body if unable to successfully complete a pull-up: Figure 3 “Women can’t do these” by Kay BODY EXPERIENCES OF FEMALE EXERCISERS IN FITNESS CENTERS 19 I don’t like going on that machine just because I feel like it makes me super self conscious. It’s like, “oh well, you ate too much the past couple of days so that’s why you can’t lift yourself up and that’s why you have to add more”. It actually becomes very, very negative when I have to do that. If you like can do it, it’s like “oh my gosh, you can do a pull-up, that’s amazing”. It kind of qualifies you as a fitness person in my mind. These results elucidated that traditional fitness centers can have a restrictive influence on a woman’s body experience based on the gender norms reinforced. Cockburn and Clarke (2002) found that adolescent girls similarly avoided experiences that either threatened the female identity or challenged one’s ability to measure up to the socially-defined body ideal. For adult women in mixed-gendered gyms, avoidance of exercises may be due to risk, or fear, of not being able to perform the exercise in a confident way (Fisher, Berbary, & Misener, 2018). Given traditional beliefs that women possess upper body strength inferior to men (Miller, MacDougall, Tarnopolsky, & Sale, 1993), it is unsurprising that the women in our study avoided or felt uncomfortable using pullup machines. The perceived dominance of male representation on strength equipment, absence of representation and equipment designed for women, gender norms about strength, and equipment that posed a threat to their identity as a woman contributed to self objectification and self-consciousness about their belonging in a space defined by hegemonic masculinity. Encouraging factors. Although the discussion was dominated by discouraging factors, the participants captured encouraging factors that were perceived to buffer negative experiences while exercising in their fitness centers. Most notably, a learning environment, apparel standards, the freedom to choose empowering exercises and machines, and self-acceptance-based messages BODY EXPERIENCES OF FEMALE EXERCISERS IN FITNESS CENTERS 20 in the fitness center encouraged positive body experiences while exercising. Emi shared that the combination of scaled workout options guided by a knowledgeable coach at her fitness center neutralized the fear of failing at difficult exercises. In contrast with past experiences at other fitness centers, Emi felt comfortable in her body in this environment because different levels of fitness experience were normalized: Figure 4 “Being guided to success” by Emi On the board, they’ll put scaling options. “Here’s the traditional weight, but also here are some other things that you could do if you’re not comfortable doing that”. I like the teaching slash learning aspect of it, that you’re being guided to success, like you weren’t just – like I walked into [name of past fitness center] and just kind of did whatever I wanted to do. There’s no guidance really. For other participants, a positive body experience included the ability to create, choose, and scale exercises in their workout to meet their personal comfort levels with fitness. Amy captured this freedom to choose in a photograph of a long rack of different sized dumbbells: ‘My favorite BODY EXPERIENCES OF FEMALE EXERCISERS IN FITNESS CENTERS 21 thing to see at the gym - one of my things to go to first. I can normally do the majority of my workout with free weights; I get creative. It definitely helps body image when like I’ve seen myself increase weight.’ Figure 5 “My favorite thing to see at the gym” by Amy The opportunity to scale workouts and have access to equipment, which fostered the participants’ ability to explore their physical abilities, was encouraged through textual messages on decals in some fitness centers. For example, Ali and Bri highlighted the encouraging experience related to message boards on which facility staff wrote a new message each day. The content was described as self-compassionate, which motivated Ali to practice self-kindness towards her body and exercise in ways that positively served her body: ‘[It means that] I’m at a BODY EXPERIENCES OF FEMALE EXERCISERS IN FITNESS CENTERS 22 different point than everyone, but like we’re [all] here for maybe the same reason, kind of the same reasons, but like we’re doing what’s best for us.’ Figure 6 “We are [all] doing what’s best for us” by Ali Research exploring the influence of textual messaging in fitness centers suggests that typical language insinuates that if women ‘tried harder’ or ‘pushed themselves’, they could achieve the societal definition of fit and attain the ideal (Fisher, Berbary, & Misener, 2018, p.488). Unfortunately, Fisher and colleagues highlighted that this type of language often creates conflict for women’s experiences with their body. In our study, participants verbalized that language consistent with self-acceptance (e.g., ‘Go on, flex!’, Sam) and self-kindness (e.g., ‘Do more of what makes you happy’, Bri), encouraged a more positive and harmonious existence with their body while exercising. All the participants shared that quotations, decals, and message boards which displayed textual messages of gratitude, self-compassion, and self-acceptance helped them believe their fitness centers challenged negative messaging portrayed by the broader fitness BODY EXPERIENCES OF FEMALE EXERCISERS IN FITNESS CENTERS 23 culture. Strengthening the support for self-compassion-based messaging, Lex described a sub space within her gym (i.e., separate exercise room) adorned with self-compassion messages as ‘her favorite place’. Ali and Emi, who participated in fitness centers without mirrors (e.g., CrossFit box, cycle studio), also noted that messaging which fostered a culture of self compassion (e.g., ‘Head high and proud. This stuff is hard’, Emi) de-emphasized appearance and emphasized physical effort and performance (e.g., ‘It doesn’t matter where you finish, only that you finish with integrity and give it a solid effort’, Emi). Self-compassion-based messages presented through platforms such as social media have been shown to buffer the internalization of the fit ideal for young adult college women (Slater, Varsani, & Diedrichs, 2017). Our results suggested a similar experience whereby messages directly displayed in fitness centers through posters, decals, and message boards, buffered negative body experiences. Thus, despite the dominance of discouraging factors in the fitness center, participants felt that the presence of self compassion messages challenged their negative thoughts and feelings about their body while exercising. In addition to textual messages which encouraged self-compassion and body acceptance, fitness centers that included efforts to moderate apparel standards were perceived as encouraging. For Lex, an enforced dress code minimized the pressure to wear tight, form fitting clothes and encouraged comfort in her own skin: BODY EXPERIENCES OF FEMALE EXERCISERS IN FITNESS CENTERS 24 Figure 7 A space for “all body shapes and all body sizes” by Lex When I see those people I am immediately self-conscious or I’m like you know “I wish I looked like that”. I just think [the dress code] is more inclusive to all people….I think that they were just trying to create a space where everyone feels comfortable. I’m ten times more confident knowing I won’t see any of the [negative influencers]. Lex elaborated on how clothing played a key role in how she perceived herself and other women in the fitness center. The enforcement of a dress code minimized body comparison for Lex because it encouraged participation of women of all shapes and sizes. Craig and Liberti (2007) described that representation of all women in fitness centers can help promote health as a state of being, not as a particular body type. In our study, participants felt that an established dress code BODY EXPERIENCES OF FEMALE EXERCISERS IN FITNESS CENTERS 25 in the fitness center encouraged the participation of women of all ages, shapes, and backgrounds, deemphasized a singular body ideal, and supported body acceptance. Navigating Their ‘Place’ The participants’ experience with the discouraging and encouraging factors in their fitness centers influenced how they used the space itself as well as the meaning they attributed to their bodies while exercising. Several of the participants preferred an exercise environment which supported their freedom to choose exercises and workouts. Unfortunately, most fitness centers are designed to segregate spaces. Therefore, most of the participants described navigating this barrier by seeking out a subspace in the facility characterized, by what they labeled, as ‘comfortable’. The word ‘comfortable’ arose repeatedly across our participants’ experiences and, in this context, comfort represented the absence of conflict. In prior research, comfort in women only fitness centers is provided by an organizational culture of nonjudgement (Craig & Liberti, 2007); however, in many mixed-gender fitness centers, a culture of non-judgement is not prioritized. To navigate negative experiences, participants in this study chose to, when possible, exercise in non-threatening spaces to lessen risk of objectification, embarrassment, or judgement. This was predominately achieved by secluding oneself in a private room, free of others. For example, Mya described hiding in the group exercise room during workouts: BODY EXPERIENCES OF FEMALE EXERCISERS IN FITNESS CENTERS 26 Figure 8 “Comfortable in this space” by Mya Note: photo editing included blurring using Photoshop to de-identify individual. You might be doing an exercise that might not be the cutest one, you know glutes, like hip thrusts and stuff are actually – they’re pretty awkward to do in front of people. When my face gets really red and I’m like dead-sweating, no one can see and so, it’s – I just feel like 100% in my zone and focused. Researchers have noted that seeking comfortable subspaces is a common negotiating strategy for women in fitness centers (Fisher, Berbary, & Misener, 2018). Fisher and colleagues found that negotiating a constraint does not necessarily ensure participant enjoyment or remove the barriers that adult women face. Piran’s (2017) DTE describes a dimension of body connection and comfort, the quality of the connection to the body, as either comfortable or problematic. Aligned with Piran’s theory, participants in this study experienced salient body disconnection and discomfort in the segregated structure of the weight-area of the fitness center and actively sought spaces which afforded a more positive experience of embodiment, consistent with the body BODY EXPERIENCES OF FEMALE EXERCISERS IN FITNESS CENTERS 27 connection and comfort dimension of the theory. There were participants who felt discouraged by the need to seek a comfortable subspace in the fitness center, especially when engaging in exercises believed to further objectify women’s bodies or go beyond the bounds of acceptable femininity. In contrast, a few participants in our study perceived this negotiating strategy as an opportunity: ‘That can be as exciting as you want it to be, but as calm. Sometimes having the empty space to yourself is encouraging; you can do your own thing without feeling judgement or consideration towards anyone else’s space’ (Eve). This finding suggests that the provision of private spaces in the fitness center may be the encouraging factor that some women need to participate in fitness. Markula (2003) described exercisers that continue to participate according to gender lines, while also questioning the body ideals promoted by the fitness industry, as conflicted conformists. Because it represents the path of least resistance, many individuals accept and internalize exercise gender norms (Lorber, 2010). The acceptance of gender lines in the weight area ultimately deterred Kay from performing complex exercises that she had learned through years of sports participation. In a hegemonic masculine environment, she felt afraid of taking up space, negatively influencing her confidence in performing mastered exercises: BODY EXPERIENCES OF FEMALE EXERCISERS IN FITNESS CENTERS 28 Figure 9 “Maybe they should have it instead of me” by Kay Using platforms and barbells is something I’ve always been proud of being able to do, just because I had to do it for sports. I tend to actually stay away from them because I feel like they’re kind of the center of attention. Everyone is facing that area and I don’t want to take up too much of someone else’s time if they’re waiting for it – especially if they’re lifting more than I am so I feel like maybe they should have it instead of me and I can go just use dumbbells or something like that. The participants in our study changed their exercise routine to adhere to established gender norms by establishing their ‘place’ in a private subspace of the facility or by avoiding exercises they had mastered. Unfortunately, these spatial practices, like the ones described by our BODY EXPERIENCES OF FEMALE EXERCISERS IN FITNESS CENTERS 29 participants, further reinforce power relations, gender norms, and the spatial privilege of hegemonic masculinity (Coen, Rosenberg, & Davidson, 2018). Furthermore, how women use the exercise space is consistent with the agency and functionality dimension of Piran’s (2017) DTE. Piran suggests that young adult women who are able to maintain agency in their physical environment, through physical ability and functionality, report more positive embodiment experiences. Restrictions in the exercise space may lead to a restricted physical expression which is associated with the loss of valued experience of competence (Piran, 2017). In this study, barriers to agency and functionality, a critical component of a positive embodiment experience, were represented through Kay’s experience of being forced to utilize the fitness center in restrictive ways. A few of the participants in our study consciously rejected the prescribed gender lines of their fitness center and configured their workouts as demonstrations to advocate for a place for women in the weight areas. For example, Amy navigated her fitness center by entering the male dominated weight area on a regular basis to communicate that women can capably lift weights: I want to be strong and I want to be independent. I mean, I’m not saying I’m nearly close to outlifting any of those guys, but to know – like when I’m carrying a heavy box and they’re like “oh let me take that from you”, and I can be like, “no, I’m perfectly capable”. Amy highlighted that she was often the only woman in the weight area of the gym, which resulted in an uncomfortable experience. However, in contrast to some of the participants, she believed her responsibility as a woman in fitness was to advocate for the representation of women in the weight areas. She did acknowledge that she experienced perceived – and sometimes obvious – social sanctions for her efforts: BODY EXPERIENCES OF FEMALE EXERCISERS IN FITNESS CENTERS 30 There is a lot of men back there and they’re all huge guys. I went up to the bench beside this one guy and he just gives me this funny look, like “what are you doing back here” and I go grab some weight and start lifting while he’s still just sitting there like “what are you doing?” Previous researchers have described this form of advocacy as crossing the gendered lines – the social and structural boundaries separating gendered activities and spaces (Coen, Rosenberg, & Davidson, 2018). Furthermore, using the body as protest, resistance, and defiance towards ‘normative’ pressures is suggested by Piran (2017) as a critical component of a positive experience of embodiment, which aligns with one’s need for comfort, safety, and joy in one’s body. Perhaps this resistance also helps strengthen one’s identity as a strong, active person. For our participants, these overt efforts were both empowering and difficult to sustain in the face of embedded masculinity and stereotypes about women in fitness. These results elucidate that women are aware of the gend

Meeting the Mental Health Needs of Student-Athletes: A Meeting the Mental Health Needs of Student-Athletes: A Descriptive Study of Practitioners and their Perspectives Descriptive Study of Practitioners and their Perspectives William C. Way III West Virginia University, wcway@mix.wvu.edu Follow this and additional works at: https://researchrepository.wvu.edu/etd Part of the Kinesiology Commons Recommended Citation Way, William C. III, "Meeting the Mental Health Needs of Student-Athletes: A Descriptive Study of Practitioners and their Perspectives" (2021). Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports. 8018. https://researchrepository.wvu.edu/etd/8018 This Dissertation is protected by copyright and/or related rights. It has been brought to you by the The Research Repository @ WVU with permission from the rights-holder(s). You are free to use this Dissertation in any way that is permitted by the copyright and related rights legislation that applies to your use. For other uses you must obtain permission from the rights-holder(s) directly, unless additional rights are indicated by a Creative Commons license in the record and/ or on the work itself. This Dissertation has been accepted for inclusion in WVU Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports collection by an authorized administrator of The Research Repository @ WVU. For more information, please contact researchrepository@mail.wvu.edu. Meeting the Mental Health Needs of Student-Athletes: A Descriptive Study of Practitioners and their Perspectives William C. Way Dissertation submitted to the College of Physical Activity and Sport Sciences at West Virginia University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctorate of Philosophy in Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology Jack C. Watson II, Ph.D., Chair Samuel Zizzi, Ed.D. Monica Leppma, Ph.D. Ashley Coker-Cranney, Ph.D. Department of Sport Sciences Morgantown, WV 2021 Keywords: Mental health, Practitioners, Student-athletes, Counseling, Psychological services Copyright 2021 William Way ABSTRACT Meeting the Mental Health Needs of Student-Athletes: A Descriptive Study of Practitioners and their Perspectives William C. Way Efforts are being made to promote mental health awareness and destigmatize help-seeking behavior among student-athletes (e.g., Kern et al., 2017). The availability and visibility of practitioners with specialized training in sport psychology can facilitate these efforts (e.g., Flowers, 2007; Carr, 2007; McDuff et al., 2005). However, some student-athletes have observed that the clinical sport psychology (CSP) practitioners who are available to them are being stretched thin (Way et al., 2020). In the context of collegiate mental health more broadly, many campus counseling centers are struggling to meet the demand for clinical services (e.g., Kafka, 2019). Research on the experiences and perspectives of CSP practitioners in the collegiate setting has been scarce (cf. Schlimmer & Chin, 2018), and has neglected the vantage point of practitioners who support student-athletes at institutions that do not have access to sport psychology services (cf. Petrie et al., 1995). As such, the first objective of this study was to expand upon the work of Hayden and colleagues (2013) to identify the population of clinical and applied sport psychology practitioners from all NCAA member institution websites (Power 5 conferences, all other DI, DII, and DIII). The second objective was to survey the experiences of these practitioners and counseling/psychological services staff at institutions that did not list CSP personnel. As a whole, practitioners reported that some generalized services (e.g., personal counseling available to all students, crisis intervention) were more in-demand among student athletes than specialized sport-specific services. Sport psychology services were more common at P5 and other DI institutions, but also more likely to be stretched or exceeded by demand relative to similar services at DII and DIII institutions. At the risk of reducing service availability to a numerical tally of haves and have-nots, quantitative and qualitative data shed light on the ways in which practitioners experienced and were impacted by the structure, function, availability of, and institutional support for psychological services. In their open-ended responses, the most prevalent need that practitioners expressed was for more staffing (more staff, more diverse staff, and more multidisciplinary staff). Results invite athletics and institutional administration to consider the loads that are being shouldered by mental health and sport psychology staff at their institutions; the voice and support that is granted to these practitioners; and the value of robust mental health services/outreach for recruitment, retention, and risk management. Acknowledgments iii I am filled with emotion as I look back on my time at WVU through to the completion of this project. What a formative chapter in my life this has been! This document already has so many pages that I feel no pressure to be stingy here with my gratitude. First and foremost, I would like to thank my committee members. Your mentorship and guidance took root long before this project was even an idea, and will extend far beyond its completion. Dr. Watson, from the moment I arrived on campus as an anxious candidate during interview weekend, I felt that I could be my authentic self with you. During our interview, you asked me about my strengths and weaknesses. Mustering the confidence to stand in my strengths was hard enough, until you reminded me about the penalty flag that would be discharged in the event of cliché “weaknesses.” Perhaps caught off guard by the humor of the situation I blurted out (maybe in more detail than you were looking for!) that I can over-think things and get in my own way. You can now be the judge of the veracity of that response (: Through my time at WVU, your encouragement, support, and affirmation have helped me to stand more firmly in my strengths and to step back for a moment when my mind gets tangled. From essential readings and teaching observation, to research meetings, classes, career lunch, etc., you have taught me so much. In addition to disciplinary knowledge and professional practice wisdom that you have passed on, you have taught me (perhaps without meaning to) about hard work, balance, family, hula hooping, and the value of infectious laughter that echoes down the hall. I am so fortunate to have a mentor like you, and am beyond grateful for all that you have invested in me. Dr. Zizzi, you have helped this project to morph and take shape since dissertation seminar. Throughout this journey you have challenged me to remember that, oftentimes, less is more… that it’s okay to wander in the forest, so long as one can climb up above the trees thereafter. I have to admit that this document doesn’t strike me as a “win” in the less-is-more column (!!), and it may be that I will always have to wander further than most before I can climb up, but your voice of wisdom and pragmatism will always encourage me to do so. I should add that your health and exercise psych course sits high on my list of favorites, and was incredibly impactful for me. You have helped me to see the importance of “staying in your lane,” but also that an openness to peeking into other “lanes” can be incredibly instructive. You introduced me to program evaluation and stoked a systems-level curiosity within me. This energy and these ideas are cemented in the foundation of this project; and I have no doubt, in the foundation of my future career as a scholar-practitioner as well. Thank you. Dr. Leppma, from your Theories and Techniques class during my first semester, through to supervision during internship, and now to dissertation, you have been with me through every leg of my journey at WVU. Whether it was discussing course content and case studies, or sorting through the myriad thoughts, emotions, and questions that have come up through it all, you have always been willing to carve out extra time to help. Throughout my studies and training, you iv have helped me to identify and clarify my approach to practice as a clinician in training – a philosophy that fits authentically for me as a person, and infuses my research too. I have so deeply valued your insight and mentorship. Dr. Cranney, if I only had one word to describe you and your mentorship, it would be “brilliant.” First, I say “brilliant” because you are one of the sharpest and most intelligent thinkers I have ever met. You have a way of seeing and conceptualizing things from different angles and with a level of sophistication that – on several occasions – has left me flabbergasted. I also say “brilliant” because there is an intensity, a brightness to the energy and curiosity that seems to fill all that you do. Through your encouragement, and through the example you set, you inspire me to reach – to consider a different perspective, to ask questions, to go out on a limb every so often, and to never set limits on what I do. Outside of my committee, there are so many who I want to thank for their influence and support; so many who have made my time at WVU and this culminating project so meaningful. Dr. Etzel, I am beyond fortunate to have “snuck in” prior to your retirement, and you have been like a second advisor to me. I arrived on campus a bit starstruck, and this was perhaps most palpable in your ethics class during my first semester. Here I was learning ethics from “the ethics guy,” and I vividly recall choking on my nerves during what should have been a routine “what did you learn from the chapter” sort of presentation. It was awful. We talked about it in your office not long thereafter. “It was a bit tense,” you said with a warm grin, and we both had a good laugh about it. From that point on, I felt freed up to take myself a little less seriously and to remember that any moment can become a learning opportunity so long as we are mindful enough to see it as such. I must add that any knowledge of counseling college student-athletes I have accumulated, I owe to you. You taught me to notice the culture of athletics and to use a holistic, developmental lens in my work with student-athletes. Finally, it seemed like your door was always open for a quick question, a consult, a good joke, a thought-provoking quote, and/or a really, really good cup of coffee (“a speedy cup of Seattle’s Beast,” as you would put it). Thank you so much for all of your wisdom, guidance, and support. To all at the Carruth Center, my supervisors, and especially Layne, Missy, and T.Anne – I am grateful beyond words for the environment and the opportunities you offered me as a trainee. During a critical period in my professional development, I always had someone I could go to for help – from fumbling my way through Titanium for the first week (or month?!) and planning group sessions, to getting a second opinion on a risk assessment or processing transitions in my own life. I felt seen, held, affirmed, and encouraged, as well as challenged and extended. I emerged with a sense of growth, authentic confidence (or perhaps confidence in my authentic self), and inner certainty that “this is what I want to do with my life” unlike any I had known before. All of you, the work that you do, and the training you provide were in my heart during this study. v To all my classmates in the program – past and present – it is a great joy and privilege to call you friends and colleagues. This program is so special because of the collaboration, support, and togetherness we have shared. To my cohort partners… Bobby – My basecamp desk neighbor, there was never a dull moment! Perhaps spurred by some “unique” overheard choices in my headphones (“Bill, am I going crazy or are you listening to bird sounds?!”), you have introduced me to some great bands. I also have a newfound appreciation for Jeopardy from the mentorship of its greatest fan. Both of these things – music, and Jeopardy – have, to my surprise, been significant components of dissertating through quarantine. Finally, I think you are as close to a human database as one can get, and inspire me to consume more research. I sincerely hope that our collaboration will continue beyond our time in the program. Kate – I don’t think I could have survived multivariate without you! From all the classes we shared, to navigating internship, I always appreciated your insight and your sense of humor. I also recall you having the most beautiful, nutritious meals prepped for in between the myriad demands of the day. Even if I haven’t quite nailed it yet, you challenged me to consider the importance of properly fueling the mind and body throughout a busy day (perhaps one spent dissertating!). I would also be remiss if I didn’t add that I was blown away by your dissertation, and hope that I can stay current on the amazing things that you are going to do in the field. Spencer – MY MAN. Our friendship through these last several years has been a true treasure, and our shared adventures in your beautiful home state made for a season of my life that I will never forget. From wide-eyed counseling tapes, to bonking on the ascent of Mud Pike, demolishing Kroger’s supply of peanut butter, and the innumerable antics that we shared during your time with us at the Way Café, you helped this high-strung neurotic to remember that the fun/free child needs to get out to play every now and again. Your poised, mindful, and deliberate wisdom is an exceptional gift, and one that has helped me to great effect on more than one occasion. Your discerning eye and constructive feedback have been especially helpful and appreciated throughout this project. I feel so fortunate that our paths have converged and crossed, and I want to send my sincere gratitude your way. To Jeri, Wesley, and Shannon – My experiences with LeadWELL and WellWVU were incredibly valuable. Your mentorship and supervision helped to cultivate the campus-as community perspective that was foundational for this project. You also gave me space to think independently, creatively, and critically about student health and wellness. I have a new appreciation for the value of meeting and engaging students where they are; and my idea of what “outreach” is has been greatly enriched and expanded because of you. Last, and certainly not least, to my family… vi Mom – Your strength has always inspired me, and as I have matured, I have come to see more and more clearly just how strong you really are. Likewise, as I have grown and matured, so too has our relationship. Watching this metamorphosis through my young adulthood has been one of my greatest joys. Through it all, your listening ear, support, and unconditional love have made all the difference in my life. I could never have done this without you. Jason – Bro, your creativity and determination never cease to amaze me. All that you do, you do wholeheartedly, and I deeply admire this about you. I have tried to emulate your energy and passion in this project, and will continue striving to do so in my future work. Grandpop – You delight in simplicity and beauty as an artist, and navigate obstacles with the pragmatic ingenuity of an engineer. I used to see these two ways of being as incompatible, but have come to realize how harmonious they are for you. I can see your influence and example rubbing off on me as I look back on the journey of this dissertation. John and Donna – What a strange, tense place this world was during 2020. You have been saints to take me and Gabby in through this unexpected time of quarantine and “in between.” I could not be more grateful for your support and provision. Who knows, once you are rid of us, perhaps the extra space at “Club Kendall” could become a Bed and Breakfast retreat for frazzled writers or dissertation hopefuls like me (; Gabby – My love and my light, I could not imagine sharing this journey with anyone but you. From our breakfast breaks and plowing through websites, to long walks and deep talks, you have helped me through this project and this season in more ways than I can say. You have been my constant, and a voice of wisdom. With each passing day, I feel like I learn more and more about God’s love through you. In each chapter of our life together I find myself awestruck by how much we continue to learn and grow – as individuals, as a couple, and as a team. This chapter has been no exception, and I cannot wait to see what unfolds when we find ourselves, “on the road again.” vii Table of Contents Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 1 Service Availability and Providers .............................................................................................. 2 Demand for Services ................................................................................................................... 3 Practitioner Perspectives and Experiences .................................................................................. 4 Purpose ............................................................................................................................................ 6 Methods........................................................................................................................................... 8 Website Review Procedures ........................................................................................................ 8 Survey Development ................................................................................................................... 8 Survey Recruitment ................................................................................................................... 10 Data Analysis ............................................................................................................................ 11 Results ........................................................................................................................................... 12 Practitioner Frequencies (RQ 1a) .............................................................................................. 12 CSP Titles and Training (RQs 1b and 1c) ................................................................................. 13 Survey Descriptives................................................................................................................... 14 Perceived Demand for Services Among Student-Athletes (RQ 2a) ......................................... 15 Cross-Tabulations for Demand .............................................................................................. 15 Demand Cross-Tab: CSP. .................................................................................................. 16 Demand Cross-Tab: Applied Sport Psychology. ............................................................... 17 Demand Cross-Tab: General Counseling. ......................................................................... 17 Demand Cross-Tab: Mandated Counseling. ...................................................................... 17 Demand Cross-Tab: Crisis Intervention. ........................................................................... 18 Perceived Demand for Sport Psychology Services When Not Offered (RQ 2b) ...................... 18 Perceived Availability of Services for Students/Student-Athletes (RQ 2c) .............................. 19 Cross-Tabulations for Availability ........................................................................................ 20 Availability Cross-Tab: CSP and Applied Sport Psychology............................................ 20 Availability Cross-Tab: General Counseling. .................................................................... 21 Availability Cross-tab: Psychiatry, Mandated Counseling, and Crisis Intervention. ........ 21 Practitioner Experiences at High and Low Service Availability (RQs 3b and 3c) ................... 22 Adding Qualitative Detail to Scaled Survey Items ................................................................ 24 Caseload and Client Risk ................................................................................................... 24 Self-Care ............................................................................................................................ 27 viii Emotional Support ............................................................................................................. 28 Professional Development ................................................................................................. 29 On-Call Hours .................................................................................................................... 29 Additional Practitioner Perspectives (RQs 3a and 3c) .............................................................. 30 Campus Administration ......................................................................................................... 30 Diversity and Inclusion .......................................................................................................... 32 Visibility to and Rapport With Student-Athletes .................................................................. 35 Confidentiality ....................................................................................................................... 37 Stigma .................................................................................................................................... 38 Peer Consultation for Work With Athletics .......................................................................... 39 Summary and Segue .................................................................................................................. 40 Discussion ..................................................................................................................................... 41 Objective 1: Identify and Describe the Population of Collegiate CSP Practitioners ................ 41 Website Review: Practical Implications ................................................................................ 42 Objective 2: Describe Practitioner Perspectives on Service Availability ................................. 43 Demand for Unavailable Sport Psychology Services ............................................................ 44 Demand for Other Clinical Services Among Student-Athletes. ............................................ 45 Mandated Services. ............................................................................................................ 45 Psychiatry Services. ........................................................................................................... 46 Crisis Intervention Services. .............................................................................................. 46 Objective 3: Explore Practitioner Experiences ......................................................................... 47 Persistent Need ...................................................................................................................... 47 Practitioner Voice and Other Feedback Loops ...................................................................... 48 Mental Health Promotion in Athletics ................................................................................... 49 Survey Data: Potential Limitations ........................................................................................... 50 Conclusions ................................................................................................................................... 51 References ..................................................................................................................................... 56 Appendix A: Tables and Figures .................................................................................................. 69 Table 1. Summary of sub-questions and planned analyses ....................................................... 69 Table 2. Sources that guided survey item development ............................................................ 70 Table 3. Sport psychology practitioner presence cross-tabulated by NCAA division level ..... 71 Table 4. Cross-tabulation of demand for mental health services by division level and proportion of clinical hours with student-athletes ..................................................................... 72 ix Table 5. Cross-tabulation of perceived mental health service availability for students/student athletes by division level and proportion of clinical hours with student-athletes ..................... 73 Table 6. Independent sample t-tests comparing experiential statements across low and high perceived service availability groups ........................................................................................ 74 Table 7. Themes, sub-themes, and initial codes from inductive thematic analysis .................. 75 Figure 1. Frequencies of perceived demand for services among student-athletes .................... 81 Figure 2. Frequencies of perceived availability of services ...................................................... 82 Appendix B: Text Version of Qualtrics Survey ............................................................................ 83 Appendix C: Pre-Proposal Reflections and Philosophical Assumptions ...................................... 88 Appendix D: IRB Approval Letter ............................................................................................... 94 Appendix E: Extended Results ..................................................................................................... 96 Appendix F: Extended Review of Literature. ............................................................................. 150 CAMPUS MENTAL HEALTH PRACTITIONER PERSPECTIVES 1 Introduction At present, most institutions do not offer specialized services for the mental health and performance-related needs of student-athletes (Kornspan & Duve, 2006; Hayden et al., 2013; Connole et al., 2014; Sudano & Miles, 2017). Developing specialized services for athletics may not be practical or feasible when counseling and psychological services (CAPS) staff are already struggling to meet the needs of their campus communities. Many college counseling centers have not received additional resources during times of increased service utilization (Hodges, 2001; Eells et al., 2005), and are left to improvise amid heavy demands and unsustainable conditions (Much et al., 2010; Watkins et al., 2012; Schwartz, 2013). Kafka (2019) encapsulated these problematic conditions in his article title, Overburdened mental-health counselors look after students. But who looks after the counselors? The support needs of campus mental health practitioners may be in need of increased attention, and when a lone embedded practitioner is the only one providing for the mental health needs of an athletics department, the question of support needs could be equally significant. At present, collegiate student-athletes appear to be utilizing mental health services more frequently than ever. Some documented rates of service use have included < 2% by Pierce (1969), 9% by Bergandi and Wittig (1984), an estimated 15% by Bennett (2007), and an estimated 25% by Johnson (2017). Whether spurring this trend or following from it, a growing body of research has explored student-athletes’ preferences for sport psychology service providers (e.g., Lubker et al., 2012) and mental health services (e.g., López & Levy, 2013), suggestions for increasing mental healthcare accessibility (NCAA, 2017), and satisfaction with service availability (Way et al., 2020). Researchers have also explored the availability of mental health services for student-athletes from the viewpoints of athletic trainers (Sudano & Miles, CAMPUS MENTAL HEALTH PRACTITIONER PERSPECTIVES 2 2017) and administrators (Connole et al., 2014; Moore, 2016), as well as through analysis of counseling center and athletic department websites (Hayden et al., 2013). However, the perspectives of mental health practitioners who work with student-athletes have been largely absent from this growing body of research (Schlimmer & Chin, 2018; Moreland et al., 2018). The vantage point of these practitioners could be an untapped source of information regarding the mental health needs of student-athletes and the extent to which these needs are currently being met. Furthermore, researchers have been working to identify strategies for supporting student-athletes through their unique experiences and stressors, but a question remains as to whether CAPS and clinical sport psychology (CSP) providers are feeling in need of support themselves, and if so, in what ways. Before proposing steps to gather more information about practitioner perspectives, it is necessary to first quantify the current landscape of service availability for student-athletes, the level of demand for those services, and the experiences of service providers (see also Appendix F). Service Availability and Providers NCAA Bylaws 16.4.2 and 16.4.2.1 recently required Division I Power 5 conference (hereafter abbreviated P5) institutions and all other Division I, II, and III (DI, DII, DIII) institutions to ensure that their student-athletes have access to mental healthcare (Brutlag Hosick, 2019; see also https://web3.ncaa.org/lsdbi/). At this important juncture it is difficult to pinpoint the number and type of practitioners who provide mental health services to student-athletes (Gross et al., 2020); and in order to assess any growth in service availability that follows from these legislative changes, this would be an important time to collect baseline data about practitioner presence across NCAA institutions. Before looking ahead to the future of service availability, however, it may be prudent to first look back. CAMPUS MENTAL HEALTH PRACTITIONER PERSPECTIVES 3 In an early study of service availability, Bergandi and Wittig (1984) polled 53 college counseling center directors and found that 49% (n = 26) offered some form of mental health services specifically for student-athletes. Their data did not detail what these services entailed. Since that time, surveys of service availability have sometimes lumped clinical and applied sport psychology services into one measured construct. Researchers have identified the presence of clinical and/or applied services at 23.4% (Kornspan & Duve, 2006) to 39.7% (Connole et al., 2014) of institutions across divisional levels. Sport psychology services defined as clinical in nature have been identified in 20.5% of DI athletic training rooms (Sudano & Miles, 2017) and 32.5% of DI FBS institution counseling centers (Hayden et al., 2013). Perceived service availability has typically been higher at DI institutions relative to DII and III institutions (Kornspan & Duve, 2006; Connole et al., 2014; cf. Moore, 2016). When embedded services are made available, they tend to be staffed by one practitioner (e.g., LeViness et al., 2018) who could be working to serve a department with as many as 800 to 1,000 student-athletes (Flowers, 2007; Carr, 2007). Demand for Services One third of counseling center directors recently indicated that they had waitlists in effect for services at their clinic, with an average of 51 students waiting for services (range = 2 – 300; LeViness et al., 2018). Researchers examining the demand for mental health services specifically among student-athletes have done so “with considerable variability” as to what this entails (Moreland et al., 2018, p. 64), and few have used clinical records to gauge rates of service use among this population. In what may be the most extensive records of student-athletes’ mental health service use, the Penn State Center for Collegiate Mental Health (CCMH) studies have found that student-athletes comprised about 7% of campus counseling center clients over the last CAMPUS MENTAL HEALTH PRACTITIONER PERSPECTIVES 4 eight years (CCMH, 2012-2019). However, with the full and demanding schedules that student athletes frequently balance, they may not be available to utilize the campus counseling center during its normal operating hours (Etzel et al., 2006). To provide for the unique needs of student athletes, and when resources permit, some institutions create the specialized or embedded services outlined above. In these instances, the demand for CSP services can steadily increase in the years after these services are first offered (McDuff et al., 2005; Bennett, 2007; Flowers, 2007). In Chamberlain’s (2007) experience, rates of service use had only plateaued because all available appointment times were filled. Offering an indirect clue as to what this might be like for a practitioner, a student-athlete shared with Way and colleagues (2020) that, There [aren’t] enough psychological services for athletes. I regularly go to [our sport psychologist] and most of the time she is booked two weeks in advance and she looks exhausted by the time in the day when I can see her because I’ve seen her schedule and the athletic department is running her thin. (p. 315) Practitioner Perspectives and Experiences To date there has only been one study to examine practitioners’ experiences of providing mental health services to student-athletes (Schlimmer & Chin, 2018). Apart from this, insight to the experiences of CSP practitioners must be gleaned from a few firsthand accounts (JCSP vol. 1, iss. 3; McDuff et al., 2005; Johnson, 2017), all of which have come from the DI context. This has neglected the experiences of mental health practitioners who work with DII and DIII student athletes (cf. Rancourt et al., 2020), and the experiences of CAPS staff who support student athletes at institutions that do not have access to CSP services (cf. Petrie et al., 1995). Consequently, including the perspectives of practitioners from all levels of athletic competition presents an important gap in the research. CAMPUS MENTAL HEALTH PRACTITIONER PERSPECTIVES 5 In the absence of broader data, experiential accounts from CSP personnel show some interesting similarities and differences to those of other practitioners in the milieu of college counseling. For example, CAPS and CSP personnel can both experience tension and role ambiguity with administrators (Chamberlain, 2007; Hack, 2007; Jodoin & Ayers, 2013; Johnson, 2017). Likewise, just as there can be tugs on the confidentiality of student-athletes’ mental health service use (Bennett, 2007; Chamberlain, 2007; Etzel & Watson II, 2007; Hack, 2007; Loughran et al., 2014; Schlimmer & Chin, 2018), maintaining client confidentiality can also be a challenge for CAPS staff working in small campus counseling centers (Vespia, 2007) or in the context of increasingly intrusive campus administrators (Grayson & Meilman, 2013). Confidentiality is especially important in light of student risk factors, campus tragedies, or high-profile cases. Clinical administrators have remarked on the increasing visibility and scrutiny of CAPS on college campuses, particularly with students who may be a danger to themselves or others (Watkins et al., 2012; Grayson & Meilman, 2013). Speaking to an additional form of risk that can present for mental health practitioners who work in or with collegiate athletics, Zillmer and Gigli (2007) shared that student-athlete conduct (e.g., hazing, sexual misconduct, substance abuse) “can become a major problem not only for the athletic department but also for the university’s image as a whole” (p. 220). As a result, they said, “sport psychologists may have a special entrée within this context of reducing the risk of negative publicity, while adding important life skills lessons to student-athletes” (p. 220; see also Bennett, 2007; Flowers, 2007). It could be helpful to have broader data about practitioners’ experiences of risk and risk management because of the stress it can impose. Recent research has focused on sport psychology practitioners’ professional quality of life, coping strategies, and self-care (e.g., CAMPUS MENTAL HEALTH PRACTITIONER PERSPECTIVES 6 Cropley et al., 2016; Quartiroli et al., 2019a, 2019b), but less so on topics of practitioner mental health and use of personal counseling. Some twenty years ago, Andersen and colleagues (2000) suggested counseling and therapy for the personal/professional development of sport psychology practitioners as well as for the prevention of impairment. This suggestion could still carry some weight today, and for the broader population of collegiate mental health staff as well (Kafka, 2019). Despite the personal and professional benefits, little is known about the extent to which sport psychology practitioners engage in their own personal therapy. In sum, CAPS staff face a variety of challenges, as do those working within the unique environment of athletics. Amid myriad stressors there are also many sources of enrichment, meaning, and enjoyment for CAPS and CSP practitioners (Kadambi et al., 2010; Chamberlain, 2007; Flowers, 2007; Wolanin, 2007; Zillmer & Gigli, 2007). During an era in which more and more attention is being drawn to the mental health needs of student-athletes, and the availability of campus mental health services more broadly, the field could benefit from more inclusive data about the views and experiences of practitioners who work in this context. Purpose Three objectives (see Table 1) contribute to the overarching purpose of this study, which was to explore practitioner perspectives on the provision of mental health services to student athletes in the broader context of collegiate mental health. At a historically relevant time point, the field lacks a broad picture to illustrate who is providing mental health services to student athletes (Gross et al., 2020), and this is especially true in the context of DII and III athletics. Therefore, the first objective of this study was to expand upon the work of Hayden and colleagues (2013) to identify and describe the population of CSP personnel from all NCAA member institution websites. Within this objective, attention was devoted to the credentials and CAMPUS MENTAL HEALTH PRACTITIONER PERSPECTIVES 7 clinical titles held by these practitioners, as these can be pertinent factors for student-athletes’ attitudes towards and intentions to engage in help-seeking behavior (Maniar et al., 2001; Lubker et al., 2012; López & Levy, 2013; Woolway & Harwood, 2015; Way et al., 2020). The second objective of this study was to describe practitioner perceptions of the demand for mental health services among student-athletes at their institution, and the relative availability of those services. This objective was rooted in the observation that researchers have rarely examined demand and availability as distinct but related constructs (cf. Connole et al., 2014), and have under-utilized the firsthand experiences of service providers (Moreland et al., 2018; cf. Bergandi & Wittig, 1984; Schlimmer & Chin, 2018). Further, although scholars have attended to where CSP and other mental health services are available, few have detailed where they are not available and the need that might exist in their absence (cf. Rancourt et al., 2020). A sub objective aims to address these omissions in extant research. Finally, in their provision of mental health services to student-athletes, some practitioners have commented on experiences of personal/professional support, relationships with athletics staff/administration, and other logistical aspects of service delivery (e.g., JCSP vol. 1, iss. 3; Schlimmer & Chin, 2018). Similar experiences have also been voiced by practitioners serving the mental health needs of campus communities more broadly (e.g., Vespia, 2007; Jodoin & Ayers, 2013). As such, the third objective of this study was to explore the pertinence of these topics for a broader sample of practitioners (see Table 2). In light of rising demands for clinical services, some have recently questioned the support that collegiate mental health staff are receiving (e.g., Kafka, 2019). From this observation, sub-objectives included exploring practitioner experiences at high versus low levels of service availability and what practitioners see as current needs to facilitate their work. CAMPUS MENTAL HEALTH PRACTITIONER PERSPECTIVES 8 Methods Website Review Procedures Building upon Hayden and colleagues (2013), CAPS and athletics websites were reviewed for all NCAA member institutions. As listed in April, 2020 (ncaa.org/directory/), this included 352 DI institutions (65 of which were sub-grouped as P5 conference institutions), 320 DII institutions, and 449 DIII institutions. Directories and sub-pages were analyzed for any sport psychology staff, as well as for any description of sport psychology or mental health services for student-athletes. The number of CAPS staff, CAPS trainees, CSP staff, CSP trainees, and applied staff/trainees were recorded in mutually exclusive categories. Educational degrees, licensures, and certifications were recorded for clinical/applied sport psychology personnel. Sport psychology staff/trainees were also coded as being listed on the CAPS website, the athletics website, or both. Email addresses were recorded for survey distribution. CSP staff/trainees were operationally defined as practitioners who held or were pursuing a mental health degree and had a clinical title that alluded to a role with student-athletes (clinicians listed on athletics websites were presumed to work with student-athletes in some capacity), were a member of the Association for Applied Sport Psychology (AASP) or a Certified Mental Performance Consultant (CMPC), listed a sport psychology degree or concentration (clinical or applied), or listed an interest in sport psychology or working with student-athletes in their online bio. Applied sport psychology practitioners were identified using the same criteria, but in the absence of a clinical degree or mental health credential. Survey Development The online survey for this project was developed using subjectivist epistemological assumptions (e.g., Romm, 2007; Lincoln et al., 2011; see Appendices B & C). Recognizing the CAMPUS MENTAL HEALTH PRACTITIONER PERSPECTIVES 9 co-constructed nature of data that would be collected (Romm, 2013, 2014), the survey was written and re-written with an effort “to ‘think’ oneself into the perspective” of participants (Fielding, 1993, p. 157). In its final draft, the survey was conversational in tone, relatively concise, and transparent. The first section of the survey presented a series of statements based on experiences of campus mental health and sport psychology providers that have been documented in the academic literature (see Appendix B). Participants could agree/disagree with each statement based on their own experiences using a five-point Likert scale (“disagree,” “slightly disagree,” “slightly agree,” “agree,” and “can’t say from my experience”). The statements sought to gauge participants’ experiences in a general sense (e.g., “My caseload is too large,” “My institution promotes diversity and inclusion”) and their experiences of providing services to student-athletes more specifically (e.g., “I could build rapport with student-athletes during my work with them”). The second section of the survey asked about the demand for various mental health services specifically among student-athletes at their institution. Participants were asked to rate the perceived demand prior to COVID-19 regardless of whether or not the services were offered (i.e., there could have been demand for a service that was not offered). A brief note was included to define non-clinical applied sport psychology services. Response options were “no demand,” “low,” “moderate,” “high,” and “not sure”. Listed services included mental health counseling offered by a sport psychology specialist, mental health counseling offered by other clinical staff, applied sport psychology, mandated counseling (substance abuse/conduct), psychiatry, and crisis intervention. These services were selected for inclusion based on best practice recommendations (NCAA, 2016), emphases that campus clinics have placed on crisis intervention services (Kitzrow, 2009; Gallagher, 2012), the high demand for psychiatric services at present (LeViness CAMPUS MENTAL HEALTH PRACTITIONER PERSPECTIVES 10 et al., 2018), and the service delivery experiences of sport psychology practitioners working in collegiate athletics (e.g., JCSP vol. 1, iss. 3; Johnson, 2017). A single item was used to assess how practitioners thought COVID-19 impacted the demand for services among student-athletes. Next, participants rated the perceived availability of each service for students and/or student-athletes. Participants were asked to respond with the perceived availability prior to COVID-19 and while considering both on campus resources and off campus referral networks (King Lyn, 2017a). A six-point scale was used for these items: “Availability exceeded demand,” “Availability comfortably satisfied demand,” “Demand was met but stretched available resources,” “Demand exceeded available resources,” “Service was not offered,” and “Not sure.” A single item was used to assess how practitioners thought COVID-19 impacted the availability of services for students and/or student-athletes. In the final portions of the survey, participants were invited to comment on what they were currently needing as a person/practitioner to facilitate their work. Demographic information was collected, and, consistent with the subjectivist epistemological approach to survey development (Romm, 2013), participants were invited to share their feedback or any points of clarification. Survey Recruitment Following IRB approval (Appendix D), all sport psychology providers (clinical and applied) identified during the website review were invited to participate in the survey. At institutions where clinical sport psychology services were not offered or could not be discerned, up to three mental health staff were invited to participate. In the event that CSP services were offered exclusively through athletics, up to three CAPS staff from the institution were also invited to participate. When CAPS had more than three practitioners, recruitment prioritized staff members other than directors. All recruitment correspondence took place via email. After an CAMPUS MENTAL HEALTH PRACTITIONER PERSPECTIVES 11 initial invitation was sent in late August, reminders were sent at 15, 28, and 42 days thereafter until the survey closed in mid-October. To incentivize participation, practitioners were invited to enter a random drawing for one of six Mastercard gift cards (one valued at $100, five valued at $20 each) and/or opt-in to receive a synopsis of results from the study. Data Analysis Research questions and analyses are summarized in Table 1. For the first objective of this study, frequencies of sport psychology personnel identified during the website review were reported in a cross-tabulated format by division level (P5, DI, DII, DIII). Clinical titles and credentials listed for CSP staff/trainees were descriptively summarized. For the second objective, the perceived demand for and availability of each service was cross-tabulated by NCAA division level as well as by the proportion of clinical hours that practitioners reported spending with student-athletes/athletics. Using the sub-sample of participants who indicated that sport psychology services were not offered at their institutions, perceived demand for those services was cross-tabulated by division level. For the final objective, data for each experiential statement were descriptively analyzed. To examine potential differences in practitioner experiences at higher and lower levels of perceived service availability, two sub-samples were created based on the number of services that practitioners indicated were stretched or exceeded by demand at their institutions. Independent-sample t-tests were used to compare high and low availability groups on their experiences of satisfaction with professional development, having reasonable on call expectations, having caseloads that were too large, engaging in enough self-care, feeling overstretched by client risk factors, and wanting more emotional support for their work as practitioners. As the independent variable of high versus low service availability was run on six dependent variables, a Bonferroni correction set alpha at .008. CAMPUS MENTAL HEALTH PRACTITIONER PERSPECTIVES 12 Qualitative data was analyzed using inductive thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2006). This was an iterative and recursive process that involved building familiarity with the data set as a whole, coding distinct meaning units within participant responses, and identifying themes across participants’ responses (Braun & Clarke, 2006). Brief notes and memos were recorded to serve as an audit trail during analysis (e.g., Tracy, 2010). Coding primarily took place at a semantic level, and memos documented inferences made about latent content that moved beyond the surface of participant responses. In striving to provide a credible and trustworthy account of the data, an effort was made to provide a thick and transparent report of participants’ experiences (Tracy, 2010). Appendix E details qualitative data analysis in a theme-by-theme progression. However, in the results section that follows, qualitative data was integrated to add detail and specificity to the broader generality of quantitative data across this sample of participants. Results Practitioner Frequencies (RQ 1a) Using the operational definitions outlined in the methods section, clinical sport psychology (CSP) staff were identified at 271 (24.2%) institutions, CSP trainees were identified at 64 (5.7%) institutions, and applied sport psychology staff/trainees (with non-clinical sport/performance psychology backgrounds) were identified at 49 (4.4%) institutions. Only 20 institutions (1.8%) listed both CSP and applied practitioners. In total, the website review identified 507 CSP staff, 85 CSP trainees, and 68 applied staff/trainees. Across divisions, the number of schools with any, one, two, three, four, or five or more practitioners in each category are presented in Table 3. All (100%) P5 institutions had at least one CSP staff member listed, relative to 42% of DI institutions, 12% of DII institutions, and 11% of DIII institutions (see Table 3). Whereas no DIII institutions had more than two CSP staff, over half (55.4%) of P5 CAMPUS MENTAL HEALTH PRACTITIONER PERSPECTIVES 13 institutions had at least three. On a smaller scale, the listing of CSP trainees followed a similar trend as CSP staff when compared across divisions. Applied practitioners were listed at 1 – 2% of DII and DIII institutions and about 10% of DI and P5 institutions. CSP Titles and Training (RQs 1b and 1c) Of all 592 CSP staff/trainees identified during the website review, 40% had clinical titles that referenced sport psychology or work with athletics (see extended results for additional detail on how titles were coded). Cross-tabulated by division, greater proportions of CSP staff/trainees had clinical titles that referenced sport psychology or athletics at P5 (48.2%) and DI (40.8%) institutions relative to DII (29.4%) and DIII (20.7%) institutions. Over half (56.6%) of CSP practitioners identified during the website review held a doctoral degree, 23.7% listed a master’s degree as their highest level of education, and 3.4% held degrees in medicine (i.e., MD/DO). Trainees included both doctoral and master’s students (11.0% and 3.2% of all CSP practitioners, respectively). Terminal or current degrees were not listed for 2.2% of CSP practitioners. When biographical information was available online, CSP staff/trainees listed their highest degrees in a variety of disciplines, the most common of which were clinical (30.9%) and counseling psychology (22.5%), social work (10.1%) and counseling/clinical mental health (8.9%). CSP practitioners identified during the website review were cross-referenced in CMPC and AASP membership listings. Of all CSP staff/trainees, 13.7% held CMPC status and another 7.4% were current AASP members who were not certified. Across divisions, there were similar proportions of CSP practitioners with CMPC status at P5 (17.0%), DI (14.5%), and DII (13.7%) institutions compared to DIII institutions (2.4%). CAMPUS MENTAL HEALTH PRACTITIONER PERSPECTIVES 14 Survey Descriptives From recruitment (n = 2,819), 495 completed surveys were returned, along with another 20 partially completed surveys (> 30% complete) for a total response rate of 18.3%. Of all 515 respondents, 0.4% preferred to self-describe their gender identity, 1.0% identified as nonbinary, 27.6% identified as men, and 66.2% identified as women. Participants’ racial/ethnic backgrounds included Native American (0.2%), Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander (0.2%), Asian American/Asian (2.7%), Hispanic or Latino/Latina/Latinx (3.7%), biracial, multiracial, or multiethnic backgrounds (4.3%), Black or African American (12.6%), and White (70.3%). Respondents included senior staff members (31.7%), clinical staff members (52.9%), and trainees (4.0%). Another 11.3% of survey respondents described their role using other descriptors. On average, participants worked 36.5 hours/week (range = 3 – 70) and represented P5 (n = 74, 15.3%), DI (n = 146, 30.2%), DII (n = 96, 19.9%), and DIII institutions (n = 167, 34.6%). About half of the sample reported that they were affiliated with athletics as either trainees/employees of the institution (n = 210, 42.7%) or external consultants (n = 44, 8.9%). During a typical semester, participants spent about 30% of their clinical hours with student athletes (M = 29.61, Range = 0 – 100). The median proportion of clinical hours with student athletes was 20% (IQR = 10 – 40). When asked about specialties or areas of expertise (open ended), 350 participants responded. The most common specialties listed included trauma (n = 98, 28.0%), sport/performance psychology and/or student-athletes (n = 84, 24.0%), anxiety or mood disorders (n = 76, 21.7%), specific modalities or theoretical approaches (n = 72, 20.6%), disordered eating or body image (n = 47, 13.4%), and alcohol or other drug counseling (n = 43, 12.3%). Eighteen respondents (5.1%) identified with a specialty in crisis counseling/suicidality and five (1.4%) identified with a specialty in psychiatry. CAMPUS MENTAL HEALTH PRACTITIONER PERSPECTIVES 15 Perceived Demand for Services Among Student-Athletes (RQ 2a) Participants were asked about the perceived demand for various mental health services among student-athletes prior to the COVID-19 pandemic. Respondents saw general mental health counseling as the most in-demand service among student-athletes (see Figure 1), and less than 1% of all respondents saw no demand for this service. Perceived demand was higher for CSP than for applied sport psychology, but practitioners appeared to be less certain about the demand for these services. One quarter indicated that they were unsure about the demand for CSP and one third felt unsure about the demand for applied services. Similar proportions of practitioners saw moderate-to-high demand for CSP (48.3%) and psychiatry (46.7%) services among student-athletes. Likewise, similar proportions of practitioners saw moderate-to-high demand for applied sport psychology (36.1%) and mandated counseling (substance or conduct related, 35.7%). Of note, 53.3% of respondents perceived a moderate to high demand for crisis intervention services among student-athletes. Participants were also asked about how they thought the COVID-19 pandemic impacted the overall demand for mental health services among student-athletes. Relative to perceived demand pre-pandemic, 35.3% of participants saw increased demand, 12.0% saw decreased demand, 18.0% saw no change, and 34.7% were unsure. Cross-Tabulations for Demand Perceived demand frequencies (i.e., the count of high, moderate, low, no demand, and not sure responses) were cross-tabulated by NCAA division and by the proportion of clinical hours that participants reported spending with student-athletes. For a more parsimonious display of cross-tabulations, P5 and DI status were combined into one categorical grouping, as were DII and DIII status. Three categories were developed for the proportion of clinical hours that CAMPUS MENTAL HEALTH PRACTITIONER PERSPECTIVES 16 practitioners spent with student-athletes/athletics based on the quartiles of data for the variable: practitioners who spent the least amount of time with student-athletes (defined as less than 10% of clinical hours with student-athletes, corresponding with the first quartile), practitioners who spent a moderate amount of time with student-athletes (defined as 10% to 40% of clinical hours with student-athletes, corresponding with the IQR), and practitioners who spent the largest amount of time with student-athletes (defined as at least 41% of clinical hours with student athletes, corresponding with the fourth quartile). Demand Cross-Tab: CSP. Within the P5/DI grouping, the proportion of practitioners who saw a high demand for CSP services increased steadily as they spent more of their time with student-athletes (see dark gray highlighted cells, Table 4). Among participants who spent the least amount of time with student-athletes, 17.0% saw high demand for CSP services as compared to 34.8% of practitioners who spent a moderate amount of time with student-athletes, and 48.6% of practitioners who spent the most time with student-athletes. This increase was far less drastic in the DII/DIII grouping, and a lower proportion of practitioners saw high demand for CSP services (see light gray highlighted cells, Table 4). The proportion of P5/DI practitioners who were unsure about the demand for CSP services decreased in a relatively linear fashion moving from low to moderate to large amounts of time with student-athletes (see dark gray cells). On the contrary, the proportion of DII/DIII practitioners who were unsure about demand increased slightly among those who spent more time with student-athletes (see light gray cells). Finally, compared to the overall proportion for the sample (see purple cell), there was relatively little variation in the proportions of practitioners who saw moderate demand for CSP services across divisional groupings and time spent with student-athletes (lighter purple cells). CAMPUS MENTAL HEALTH PRACTITIONER PERSPECTIVES 17 Demand Cross-Tab: Applied Sport Psychology. Overall, a smaller proportion of practitioners saw high demand for applied sport psychology services, but demand was heightened in the P5/DI context relative to the DII/DIII context (see dark blue highlighted cells relative to light blue highlighted cells, Table 4). For instance, of participants who spent the least amount of time with student-athletes, 27.7% saw moderate-to-high demand in the P5/DI grouping relative to 18.5% in the DII/DIII grouping. Among those who spent the most time with student-athletes, 79.2% saw moderate-to-high demand in the P5/DI grouping relative to 31.6% in the DII/DIII grouping. Across divisional groupings and the amount of time spent with student athletes, shifts in the proportions of practitioners who were unsure about the demand for applied services followed a similar pattern as for CSP services (see dark blue cells relative to light blue cells). Demand Cross-Tab: General Counseling. The proportions of practitioners who saw a high demand for general counseling services among student-athletes were relatively similar when comparing divisional groupings and appeared to increase as practitioners spent more of their clinical hours with student-athletes (see yellow relative to green relative to red highlighted cells, Table 4). Of those who spent the least time with student-athletes, high demand for general counseling was reported by 25.5% of P5/DI participants and 29.6% of DII/DIII participants. This increased to 41.7% of P5/DI participants and 47.4% of DII/DIII participants who spent the most time with student-athletes. Demand Cross-Tab: Mandated Counseling. Within the DII/DIII grouping, the proportion of practitioners who saw moderate-to-high demand for mandated counseling increased steadily as they spent more of their time with student-athletes (see dark red highlighted cells, Table 4). Moderate-to-high demand for mandated counseling was reported by 25.9% of CAMPUS MENTAL HEALTH PRACTITIONER PERSPECTIVES 18 DII/DIII practitioners who spent the least time with student-athletes, 34.9% of DII/DIII practitioners who spent a moderate amount of time with student-athletes, and 44.7% of DII/DIII practitioners who spent the most time with student-athletes. There was a different pattern of responses in the P5/DI grouping. Specifically, the proportion of practitioners who saw moderate to-high demand for mandated counseling was lowest among those who spent the most time with student-athletes (see light red cells, Table 4). Demand Cross-Tab: Crisis Intervention. As a final note, among practitioners who spent the most time with student-athletes, a greater proportion of those in the DII/DIII grouping (71.0%) saw moderate-to-high demand for crisis intervention services relative to those in the P5/DI grouping (45.8%; see dark orange relative to light orange highlighted cells, Table 4). Perceived Demand for Sport Psychology Services When Not Offered (RQ 2b) A total of 214 participants indicated that CSP services were not offered at their institution, about a third (32.2%) of whom saw moderate to high demand for those services. A slightly greater proportion (40.2%) saw no or low demand for CSP services, and another 27.6% felt unsure about demand. The demand for CSP services (again, when unavailable) was cross tabulated by division level. Nine participants from P5 institutions reported that CSP services were unavailable (recall that, per operational definitions used during the website review, all P5 institutions had at least one CSP practitioner), along with 48 DI participants, 53 DII participants, and 99 DIII participants (five who indicated that CSP services were unavailable did not report their institution’s division level). Of these respondents, 22.2% of practitioners from P5 institutions perceived moderate-to-high demand for CSP services, as did 43.8% from DI institutions, 32.1% from DII institutions, and 27.3% from DIII institutions. CAMPUS MENTAL HEALTH PRACTITIONER PERSPECTIVES 19 Of 133 participants who indicated that applied sport psychology services were not available at their institutions, the majority were either unsure about the demand fo

A Qualitative Study of College Athletes’ Experiences of the COVID-19 Pandemic A Qualitative Study of College Athletes’ Experiences of the COVID-19 Pandemic Carra Johnson West Virginia University, Cj0011@mix.wvu.edu Follow this and additional works at: https://researchrepository.wvu.edu/etd Part of the Psychology Commons, and the Sports Studies Commons Recommended Citation Johnson, Carra, "A Qualitative Study of College Athletes’ Experiences of the COVID-19 Pandemic" (2021). Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports. 10161. https://researchrepository.wvu.edu/etd/10161 This Dissertation is protected by copyright and/or related rights. It has been brought to you by the The Research Repository @ WVU with permission from the rights-holder(s). You are free to use this Dissertation in any way that is permitted by the copyright and related rights legislation that applies to your use. For other uses you must obtain permission from the rights-holder(s) directly, unless additional rights are indicated by a Creative Commons license in the record and/ or on the work itself. This Dissertation has been accepted for inclusion in WVU Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports collection by an authorized administrator of The Research Repository @ WVU. For more information, please contact researchrepository@mail.wvu.edu. A Qualitative Study of College Athletes’ Experiences of the COVID-19 Pandemic Carra G. Johnson Dissertation submitted to the College of Physical Activity and Sport Sciences at West Virginia University in partial fulfillment of the requirements of Doctor of Philosophy in Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology Jack C. Watson II, PhD, Chair Danielle Davidov, PhD Damien Clement, PhD Scott Barnicle, PhD Department of Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology Morgantown, West Virginia 2021 Keywords: sport psychology, collegiate athletes, COVID-19, pandemic, phenomenology, thematic analysis Copyright 2021 Carra Johnson ABSTRACT A Qualitative Study of College Athletes’ Experiences of the COVID-19 Pandemic Carra Johnson The novel coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic took a toll on collegiate athletics, as all in-person sport activity was shut down temporarily, and competition schedules were heavily altered. The purpose of this phenomenological study was to develop an understanding of how Division I collegiate athletes experienced the pause in college sports that resulted from the COVID-19 crisis, during the first seven to nine months of the pandemic (depending on the time of interview). Between October and December 2020, eleven participants (six females, five males) engaged in individual, semi-structured interviews in which they were asked to describe how the COVID-19 pandemic affected their lives relative to their sport participation. A three-member research team conducted a thematic analysis of the interview data to identify primary themes and subthemes. Three primary themes were identified that captured the pandemic’s impact on the athletes: (a) Typical Structure: Gone, (b) Athletic Identity: Decentralized, and (c) New Choices: More Decisions. The findings align with athletes’ reported experiences during the COVID-19 pandemic in previous qualitative studies, while also adding novelty by focusing on collegiate athletes and capturing their unique experiences during the pandemic. Athletes’ experiences are discussed in relation to motivational theories, athletic identity, and retirement from sport. The author also presents several practical implications for athletes, coaches, support staff, and leaders within Division I college athletics. COLLEGE ATHLETES’ EXPERIENCES OF THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC iii Acknowledgements So many people have played some sort of role in my ultimate completion of this little paper, I’m not sure I’ll ever be able to acknowledge them all. From every faculty member in the SEPP program, to every barista-turned-confidant in every Starbucks in Morgantown, to the crew of monks + visitors + Richard at Bhavana Society, to the always-joyous Trader Joe’s employees in Pittsburgh, to amazing friends all over the country, it’s taken a serious village to get here. But within that village, I’ve had some particularly impactful guides and neighbors: DR. WATSON. I will never forget your words when I answered the phone that Monday morning in February 2016: “Are you ready for four more winters in West Virginia?” Turns out, no, I wasn’t. In so many ways, I wasn’t. Thank you for taking a chance on me, trusting that I was worth your time and energy as an advisor, and giving me the opportunity to be part of this program. It was the hardest experience of my life, and as a result I have grown and learned more from it than anything else—as a student, instructor, researcher, and person. That’s your major, semi-indirect impact on my life. Directly, I’ve become a much better researcher, writer, instructor, and critical thinker through all of our conversations, projects, and back-and-forth feedback. I’ve learned to take criticism more effectively, and have also learned when it makes sense to stand my ground and provide rationale for my perspective when we’re not in agreement. You have had a major impact in ways that have molded me indefinitely, and I hope I was worth taking the chance. Thanks for everything. DANIELLE. This project, first of all, would have been a much different experience for me without your guidance and qualitative expertise—and would not be as strong as it is now. I left every one of our meetings with far more clarity than I had going into them. Through your support and guidance, I have learned so much about qualitative research and my confidence as a qual researcher has grown immensely. However, far beyond this dissertation, you are a model of how I hope to operate and communicate as a professional. I have come to respect and look up to you more than I can express. Thank you for being a part of this. DR. CLEMENT. I think you have been such a cool, unique addition to my committee. Your expertise in injury is technically so different from my main focus of the pandemic, and yet unbelievably relevant. And while I’m glad to have your expertise, I’m most grateful for the perspective and positive energy that you bring to whatever room (virtual or in person) that you’re in. Since first interviewing with you during interview weekend five years ago, you’ve had a way of making me feel supported while simultaneously pushing me with critical questions. It’s an incredible combo that I am inspired to emulate. Thank you for bringing it all to this project. DR. BARNICLE. Throughout my time at WVU, if I knew nothing else, I always knew that I had your unwavering support and encouragement. Through many years of tension and discomfort, some of the only times I felt at ease were during our interactions—whether it was crossing paths in the hallway or discussing teaching techniques in a Friday afternoon seminar. As I started to pursue this project, I decided that I wanted to feel supported and encouraged rather than tense and pressured—I put plenty of pressure on myself already. While I have always valued your feedback and the expertise that comes with your background in applied work, nothing has meant more than knowing you’re in my corner. A thousand times thank you. COLLEGE ATHLETES’ EXPERIENCES OF THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC iv MATT CAMPBELL. I really don’t know where to start in expressing my gratitude. I’m truly overwhelmed by the way you have so quickly, willingly, and kindly jumped onto the tail end of this project when I reached out. You’ve been unbelievably kind, supportive, and easy to work with in the small but wildly important sliver of time during which I’ve asked for your help. I’m convinced that academia, and the world, would benefit from having more people like you. Following your example, I am inspired to hopefully be one of those people, too. I can’t thank you enough! KATE & JAY. I address you here as my research team, but you have also been incredible friends to me for some of my most challenging years. How incredible (or maybe, not particularly shocking?) that two of the people in the program who I felt best understood me also turned out to be absolutely key players in my dissertation. In contributing so much time and energy to this tedious project, I’ve compared your selflessness to the selflessness of organ donors—and I stand by the comparison. I don’t know why anyone agrees to get involved with something like this, and it was so important to me to do this right, so there really wasn’t any cutting corners. I asked so much of you both, and you both generously and genuinely committed (and, taught me so much throughout the process). I’m so proud of what we’ve done here—the depth and the big-picture perspective that we achieved in our analyses seem to be unmatched in similar studies. I attribute that to the beautiful way that each of you looks at the world— thoughtfully, critically, through lenses that effectively zoom in and out to capture the whole story. It is because of this, along with your kindness and authenticity, that I consider you some of my most cherished friends regardless of the distance between us. For every conversation and adventure from the moment I arrived in Morgantown—thank you for all of it. REEN. As we’ve gotten older, I’ve realized one of my greatest joys in life is making you laugh (even—and maybe especially—when it’s at my expense). Like the time I brought up hermeneutic phenomenology during fam dinner (“what did you just say??”). Thank you for bringing the joy, challenge, and humor to my research papers the last few years—fingers crossed this is the one that gets us published! And, a big thank you for your support and encouragement throughout this process—it’s so subtle, but means everything to me. I am so impressed by you and how you live your life, and I hope to make you even half as proud of me as I am of you. I love you. –Doc DAD. Thank you for continuing to be the best listener I know, and for helping me see that everything isn’t as serious as I sometimes feel or act like it is, better than anyone else can. This whole process—moving, school, and this project—was tough on me, and when it felt like too much to handle, you were usually my first call. You’ve been my most steady, reliable source of support over these years, and I’m so fortunate that I could trust you to pick up the phone nine out of every 10 times I called (even though you don’t think I call that much!). I’m not sure if I’d be at this point, finishing this up, without the consistent safe space you’ve provided. Love, #1. MOM. You’ve answered more tearful phone calls in these years than any parent should have to endure. Thank you for your endless support, especially through the moments when I know my hurt caused you hurt. “If you’re that unhappy, just come home.” I know you meant it literally, but somehow it pushed me the other way and ultimately resulted in a completed doctoral COLLEGE ATHLETES’ EXPERIENCES OF THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC v dissertation. Maybe it’s not super surprising, considering a lot of this drive, strength, and work ethic comes from you (and grandma). I love you so much. TJ. You landed in my life while I was deep in this little school project, and wow, what a critical time. I’m so grateful for your direct support—giving me the space to work, being an unofficial “critical friend” in the analysis process, going on coffee shop work hangs, making sure I was always fed. However, I’m most grateful for the intangible balance that you’ve brought to my world—a balance that gives me clearer perspective on what’s important to me, and that (maybe counterintuitively) has helped me focus deeply on my research at a time when I really needed to. I think the world of you—the natural, not-tainted-by-man world—and can’t wait for my turn to be the “dissertation spouse.” I love you. ERIKA. I believe this means that we’ve successfully met the terms of the Hancock Pact (or however pacts work)! It’s been nearly five years since that drive to NYC, wondering out loud if we could make it through this process. I’m so proud of you for holding up your end of the pact, and so grateful for your relentless support and encouragement as I’ve sought to hold up my own. Hancock Pact is forever, though. We were absolutely meant to be on this journey together, and you are forever embedded into the fabric of my life and my heart. Thank you for every walk and talk (in person or cross-country), for every life-giving adventure—from snagging wooden pallets to jumping out of a plane, for pushing me even without realizing you were, for your wisdom—in research and in life. I love you tons. SOFIA, MY FIFTH COMMITTEE MEMBER. This project doesn’t exist without you. I remember exactly where I was as I told you about this idea over the phone, feeling defeated and not wanting to propose one more dissertation idea. “What’s the worst that could happen?” you said, encouraging me to propose this “college athletes’ experiences of COVID” thing. This doesn’t even scratch the surface, though. You have become such a force in my life, and the last few years would have looked entirely different without you. Te quiero muchisimo (y, crees que alguien va leer más que esta página?). JAMIE. Thank you for being my home away from Morgantown. I don’t know if I would be at this point without you, letting me crash your Washington Heights apartment whenever I wanted (needed) during my first couple of years. Your love, care, and empathy are truly second to none, and I needed it more than ever every time I popped up in NYC—more than I even knew at the time. I am in love with every memory we’ve created there together. So many miles, so much food! I love you very much. V. In the midst of this project (and pandemic), you became my favorite distraction and most wonderful supporter (although, you’ve been that for over a decade). Thank you for all of the long talks, long drives, unplanned adventures, life perspective, and even your help with recruitment. You have supported this venture in so many different ways, directly and indirectly, and I add it to the long list of reasons why you’re my favorite person who was never actually my teacher. Love, Bonita Girl. ACUP. Thank you for your support throughout this journey. AC—a text, phone call, or seeing you on the East Coast was always grounding and felt like home at times when I felt unsettled and COLLEGE ATHLETES’ EXPERIENCES OF THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC vi very much not “at home.” UP—your genuine interest in my research, classes, and progress has always meant so much, because it takes a real kind and curious soul to listen to—let alone ask questions about—research and academics. And while I appreciate all of the ways that you both support me, backyard graduations may be the greatest. They have become my favorite events, and the thought and care that you’ve put into them over the years is unbelievable. If this project and this degree are worth finishing for any reason, it’s definitely the backyard grad! Can’t wait. Love you. GRAMS & GRAMPS. It has meant so much to have you witness some of the important parts of this multi-year process. It is one of the best feelings in the world to know I’ve made you proud, and while I know it doesn’t require a doctorate degree, I still hope you are proud of the work I’ve put into it. During my time in school, talking to you guys was always so encouraging. Our phone calls lifted my spirits whenever I wasn’t feeling great about my work or myself, and often reminded me that I was actually doing okay after all. That I was loved and that you were proud no matter what. Thank you for loving me so unconditionally. You’re the best grandparents anyone could ask for, I love you. THE ATHLETES. Last but possibly the most important, this study doesn’t exist without the college athletes who agreed to participate and share their stories. I cared about this project before starting the interview process, but I cared on such a deeper level after talking to each of these individuals. Their investment in the project fueled me to stay invested when the work felt tedious. Their willingness to share their experiences with me stoked my determination to present their collective story as accurately as possible, which made me a better researcher and made this a better dissertation. COLLEGE ATHLETES’ EXPERIENCES OF THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC vii Table of Contents A Qualitative Study of A Qualitative Study of College Athletes’ Experiences of the COVID-19 Pandemic .........................................................................................................................................1 Changes to College Sports due to COVID-19.............................................................................1 Extension of Athletic Eligibility..............................................................................................3 Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Athletes.........................................................................4 Changes to Sport Training.......................................................................................................4 Impact on Athletes’ Mental Health and Well-Being...............................................................6 Current Study...............................................................................................................................8 Methods...........................................................................................................................................9 Participants..................................................................................................................................9 Procedures .................................................................................................................................10 Data Analysis.........................................................................................................................11 Trustworthiness .....................................................................................................................12 Results ...........................................................................................................................................13 Typical Structure: Gone ............................................................................................................13 Competition Schedules Unknown, and Timelines for Return Became Moving Targets ......14 Athletes Removed from Typical Sport Environments During Mass Quarantine..................16 COVID-19 Safety Measures Implemented Upon Return to Sport........................................17 Team Dynamics Altered........................................................................................................19 Athletic Identity: Decentralized ................................................................................................21 More Time to Focus on Responsibilities and Life Outside of Sport.....................................22 Opportunity to Explore New Activities and Find New Purpose ...........................................23 New Choices: More Decisions..................................................................................................24 Managing Training During Quarantine .................................................................................24 Decisions About Future Due to Additional Year of Eligibility.............................................25 Discussion and Implications..........................................................................................................27 Limitations and Directions for Future Research ...........................................................................35 Conclusion.....................................................................................................................................36 Appendix A: Extended Literature Review ....................................................................................53 Overview of COVID-19 ............................................................................................................53 Disasters: Characteristics and Psychological Impact ................................................................54 Epidemics: Characteristics and Psychological Impact ..........................................................56 Disruptions to Sport Participation: Injuries, Forced Retirement, and Olympic Boycott...........60 COLLEGE ATHLETES’ EXPERIENCES OF THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC viii Athletes’ Experiences of Sport Injury ...................................................................................61 Athletes’ Experiences of Forced Retirement Due to Deselection or Team Elimination.......74 Changes to Competitive Sport in Response to COVID-19 .......................................................79 Professional Sports................................................................................................................79 Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Athletes.......................................................................95 Impact of Pandemic on Sport Training and Physical Activity ..............................................95 Athletes’ Initial Responses to Changes.................................................................................99 Impact of Pandemic on Mental Health and Well-Being......................................................101 Appendix B: Extended Methods .................................................................................................117 Ontology ..................................................................................................................................117 Epistemology...........................................................................................................................117 Positionality.............................................................................................................................118 COVID-19 Experience ........................................................................................................119 Experience as a College Athlete..........................................................................................122 Experience as a College Coach ...........................................................................................124 Methodology............................................................................................................................124 Participants..............................................................................................................................126 Sample Size .........................................................................................................................128 Procedures ...............................................................................................................................130 Data Collection....................................................................................................................131 Data Analysis...........................................................................................................................134 Research Question 1 ............................................................................................................134 Research Question 2 ............................................................................................................137 Trustworthiness ...................................................................................................................140 Appendix C: Extended Results and Discussion ..........................................................................143 Athletes’ Responses to COVID-19 .........................................................................................144 Comparisons Between Athletes’ Responses to COVID-19 and Sport Injury .........................148 Athlete’s Direct Comparisons Between Injury and COVID-19 Experiences .....................149 Comparison of Athletes’ Responses to COVID-19 and the Integrated Model of Sport Injury .............................................................................................................................................160 Conclusion...................................................................................................................................165 Appendix D: Brief Recruitment Message ...................................................................................167 Appendix E: Alignment of Research Questions and Interview Questions..................................168 Appendix F: Semi-Structured Interview Guide...........................................................................169 Appendix G: Tables and Figures.................................................................................................171 COLLEGE ATHLETES’ EXPERIENCES OF THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC ix Appendix H: Reflexive Journal...................................................................................................180 Appendix I: Extended References...............................................................................................197 COLLEGE ATHLETES’ EXPERIENCES OF THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC 1 A Qualitative Study of College Athletes’ Experiences of the COVID-19 Pandemic On January 30, 2020, the World Health Organization declared the outbreak of the novel coronavirus (COVID-19) a public health emergency of international concern. As a result, systems within the United States were altered to an unimaginable degree—including collegiate sports. As institutions of higher education rapidly transitioned to online learning and eliminated in-person engagements in the spring of 2020, and professional sports leagues immediately shut down, the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) followed a similar trajectory by shutting down all athletic activities because of the quickly growing pandemic. Changes to College Sports due to COVID-19 Prior to making any system-wide changes or cancellations, the NCAA formed the COVID-19 Advisory Panel in March 2020. This panel consisted of NCAA chief medical officer Dr. Brian Hainline, seven experts from the fields of medicine, public health, and security, and four former or current student-athletes. In early March, the advisory panel suggested that athletic events not be cancelled; however, within two weeks this perspective changed as COVID-19 cases and deaths increased rapidly throughout the country. On March 19th, the NCAA cancelled all upcoming winter 2019-2020 and spring 2020 sport championships—including the highlyprofitable NCAA men’s and women’s basketball tournaments (Hale, 2020). By cancelling all remaining championships, all sports were rendered out-of-season for the remainder of the 2019- 2020 academic year. Further, due to social distancing measures and moratoriums on group gatherings, athletes could not partake in supervised physical workouts (National Collegiate Athletic Association, 2019). As a result, Division I athletes were only allowed to participate in up to eight hours per week of “virtual nonphysical countable athletically related activities” for the remainder of the season (National Collegiate Athletic Association, 2020a). Many collegiate COLLEGE ATHLETES’ EXPERIENCES OF THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC 2 athletes had relocated to live with family members at this point, as all academic and athletic commitments were occurring virtually (National Collegiate Athletic Association, 2020c; Petrie et al., 2020). Transitioning into the summer of 2020, college sports remained inactive in regard to inperson interactions as colleges and universities remained closed to students and courses continued to be administered online. However, on May 20th, the NCAA voted to allow all Division I athletes and coaches to voluntarily return to their campuses for in-person athletic activities beginning June 1, 2020 (Hosick, 2020b). Although the NCAA provided continuallyupdated recommendations and a checklist for athletic programs regarding resocialization (National Collegiate Athletic Association, n.d.; National Collegiate Athletic Association, 2020a), discretion was ultimately left to each school to determine how they would manage the process (e.g., access to on-campus facilities, group size, measures taken to limit spread of the virus) based upon state and local regulations (Hosick, 2020a). While all in-person athletic activity was voluntary at this time, the NCAA eventually allowed for the implementation of mandatory practice and training once again—beginning with football and basketball (men’s and women’s) in July 2020. However, at this time it remained unclear whether upcoming collegiate sport seasons would take place at all due to the ongoing pandemic and the associated safety concerns. While the continual spread of the COVID-19 virus remained a concern, some professional sports organizations made logistical modifications to hold competitions by late summer (Axisa & Anderson, 2020; Reynolds, 2020; Gregory, 2020). However, as the fall season approached for collegiate sports, athletic conferences began to reduce the number of competitions that would take place or cancelled seasons entirely (The Ivy League, 2020; Kilgore, 2020). The NCAA eventually followed suit and in August cancelled fall championships, although member schools COLLEGE ATHLETES’ EXPERIENCES OF THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC 3 who chose to engage in athletic competitions could still do so (National Collegiate Athletic Association, 2020b). Entering the fall of 2020 and continuing into the following spring, pandemic-related restrictions began to ease a bit as evidenced by some American colleges and universities returning to in-person or hybrid instruction (C2i Dashboard, n.d.). Early in the fall, the NCAA rescheduled fall sport championships to take place in the spring of 2021 rather than cancelling them altogether (DI Council approves changes to FCS championship, n.d.; Johnson, 2020). For fall sports (all but Football Bowl Subdivision [FBS] teams), the offseason and competition season were flipped because of this decision. However, the NCAA Division I FBS—the top level of college football, made up of 10 athletic conferences—operates separately from the NCAA. Therefore, each member conference independently determined whether they would move forward with a football season in fall 2020. This decision had major financial implications, as FBS teams generate a reported 48% to 64% of the income for Power Five athletic departments each year (Dochterman, 2020). Ultimately, FBS conferences held shortened football seasons that started later than usual in the fall; most played conference-only games to reduce travel and contact between athletes. Despite efforts to protect against the virus, over the course of the season 139 games were canceled or postponed due to COVID-19 outbreaks (Cobb et al., 2020). Extension of Athletic Eligibility As a result of cancelled championships and heavily modified seasons, the NCAA granted an additional year of athletic eligibility to athletes who were eligible to compete in spring 2020, fall 2020, or winter 2020-2021. However, this extension was not granted to winter sport athletes who competed in the 2019-2020 season because although some of their championships were COLLEGE ATHLETES’ EXPERIENCES OF THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC 4 canceled due to the pandemic, they all still completed most of the season prior to the pandemic. Despite the NCAA’s approved extensions, member schools were not required to honor this, nor were they required to provide the same amount of financial aid that athletes had been receiving previously. Multiple universities opted not to honor the eligibility extension (Pickman, 2020; West, 2020), and due to a major reduction in NCAA revenue distribution to its member schools in 2020, reductions in financial aid have manifested in fewer athletic scholarships available for incoming freshmen (Ngo, 2020; Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, 2021). Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Athletes The changes that have resulted from the COVID-19 pandemic have affected athletes physically, psychologically, and emotionally. The period of mass quarantine—during which Americans were expected to maintain social distance by staying primarily in their households— has been described as a “critical pause” for athletes in which their lives came to a standstill and they made temporary changes as they waited for their lives to “return to normal” (WhitcombKhan et al., 2021). For elite athletes, this period was commonly laden with a sense of loss: loss of sport training, physical conditioning, athletic identity, motivation to engage with daily activities, consistent routine, and support (emotional, technical and social; Gupta & McCarthy, 2021; Whitcomb-Khan et al., 2021). Further, the “relatively aimless” nature of this mass quarantine was highly incongruent with elite athletes’ typical structured environments and schedules (Gupta & McCarthy, 2021). Athletes also experienced uncertainty about their athletic careers, unclear when or if they would compete again as their return to sport was so dependent on the ever-changing landscape of the pandemic (Whitcomb-Khan et al., 2021). Changes to Sport Training COLLEGE ATHLETES’ EXPERIENCES OF THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC 5 One change brought about by the COVID-19 pandemic was the alteration of athletes’ sport training and engagement in physical activity. In the first months of the pandemic most Division I athletes reportedly engaged in regular vigorous activity—many for more than an hour per day (Petrie et al., 2020). However, very few were able to maintain the training routines they had prior to mass quarantine, and training frequency and time dropped considerably (Bowes et al., 2020; Izzicupo et al., 2021; Jagim et al., 2020). While athletes spent less time than usual engaging in strength and conditioning, mobility, and flexibility training, the greatest reduction was seen in sport-specific training as athletes reported a 6.5-hour reduction per week in this area (Jagim et al., 2020). The impact that the pandemic had on athletes’ sport training is attributable to various logistical factors, as well as emotional, psychological, and motivational changes. A lack of access to training facilities contributed to the reported decline in collegiate athletes’ training regimen. Local regulations, facility closures, and lack of access to necessary resources were by far the greatest barriers to training cited by Division I athletes (Petrie et al., 2020). Athletes did not have access to their college or university training facilities because they relocated and/or the facilities closed due to the pandemic, and local safety regulations led gyms and training facilities to close their doors for varying stretches of time. As a result, many athletes did not have access to the equipment necessary to engage in or maximize their training. Another barrier to training was the lack of access that athletes had to coaches (in-person or virtually, National Collegiate Athletic Association, 2020b). Although many athletes received virtual support from their sport coaches and strength and conditioning coaches while they trained independently, it is likely that the amount of contact and programming varied between coaches (Jagim et al., 2020; Peña et al., 2021) as did access to appropriate training facilities/equipment. COLLEGE ATHLETES’ EXPERIENCES OF THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC 6 Athletes’ training regimens and levels of physical activity during the COVID-19 pandemic also appeared to be influenced by internal, individual factors. Challenging emotions seemed to limit the extent to which athletes engaged in training during the pandemic, as Division I athletes cited fear of exposure to the virus, stress or anxiety, and sadness or depression as barriers to training (National Collegiate Athletic Association, 2020c; Petrie et al., 2020). While not assessed directly, in many cases these emotional responses were likely driven by cognitive appraisals about the severity, danger, and impact of the virus—an important psychological component that may have ultimately impacted athletes’ training as well. Finally, training motivation changed for athletes during the mass quarantine. Specifically, motivation to train for sport reportedly decreased (Jagim et al., 2020), and athletes became more inclined to train to avoid physical regression rather than to strive for improvement as was more common prior to the pandemic (Mascret, 2020). Impact on Athletes’ Mental Health and Well-Being In the initial months of the COVID-19 pandemic, collegiate athletes reported mental health concerns at rates 1.5 to 2.5 times higher than usual (National Collegiate Athletic Association, 2020c). Division I athletes’ reported experiences included depression (26% reporting clinical levels), anxiety, psychological distress, feeling overwhelmed, difficulty sleeping, mental exhaustion, loneliness, hopelessness, and anger (National Collegiate Athletic Association, 2020c; Petrie et al., 2020). Despite these challenges, there was a nine percent reduction in the number of college athletes who continued to receive mental health counseling after the onset of the pandemic, per athlete reports (Petrie et al., 2020). Similar challenges appeared to plague athletes who had been preparing for the 2020 Olympics in Tokyo, as the pandemic-related changes left them “puzzled” and stressed (Schinke et al., 2020). The Olympic COLLEGE ATHLETES’ EXPERIENCES OF THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC 7 hopefuls described experiencing decreased sleep and appetite, increased rumination and loneliness, and fear that they might lose the opportunity to compete in the Olympics altogether. As mass quarantine continued and sports remained shut down, athletes all over the world had a range of experiences regarding their mental health and well-being. Some studies demonstrated increases in depression, anxiety, and insomnia among athlete populations because of the pandemic and related concerns (e.g., worry about finances; Pensgaard et al., 2021; Roberts & Lane, 2021). Other studies did not support this, as athletes showed “relatively low,” nonpathological levels of stress, anxiety, and depressive symptoms—a pattern possibly attributable to elite athletes’ experiences coping with competition-related anxiety and developing cognitive coping resources as a result (Clemente-Suarez et al., 2020; Leguizamo et al., 2020). When asked directly, some student-athletes expressed that their experiences as athletes had prepared them to manage their time, maintain motivation, and remain disciplined during the pandemic. Others felt that there was no advantage, as being an athlete did not make them different from other people and in some ways being an athlete may have been more difficult because of the demands that come with this role (Izzicupo et al., 2021). Finally, athletes’ mental health and well-being during the COVID-19 pandemic differed based on personal characteristics. For instance, the pandemic appeared to have a greater negative impact on female athletes, as they reportedly experienced more stress and anxiety, fear of the virus, and psychological decline, along with lower levels of perceived control in their lives compared to male athletes (Bowes et al., 2020; di Fronso et al., 2020; Håkansson et al., 2020; Kaçoğlu et al., 2021; Pons et al., 2020; Ruffault et al., 2020). Further, more seasoned athletes and those competing at higher levels were less impacted than those with less experience or competing at lower levels (Pensgaard et al., 2021; González-Hernández et al., 2021; Kaçoğlu et COLLEGE ATHLETES’ EXPERIENCES OF THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC 8 al., 2021). This may be due to high-level athletes having access to more resources and support from coaches and mental health practitioners (Pensgaard et al., 2021), and increased sport experience may have helped athletes build the capacity to cope with challenges. Although athletes competing at higher levels expressed less general distress during the pandemic, they reportedly experienced more anxiety about returning to sport (Ruffault et al., 2020). Team sport athletes generally reported less distress during the pandemic compared to individual sport athletes, possibly as a result of having a built-in support system, more contact with team members, and less pressure to perform well immediately upon return to sport as the responsibility to perform is distributed across team members (di Cagno et al., 2020; Uroh & Adewumni, 2021). Finally, the extent to which individuals identified as athletes appeared to play a role in mental health and well-being during the COVID-19 pandemic, although findings were mixed. In one study, a stronger athletic identity was associated with greater tendencies to ruminate and catastrophize during the pandemic (Costa et al., 2020). A strong athletic identity may lead to greater concerns about sport training, and discomfort when away from one’s sport for a prolonged period. However, in another study athletic identity was associated with less psychological distress during the pandemic (Costa et al., 2020; Uroh & Adewunmi, 2021); the authors explained that intentionally increasing one’s athletic identity may serve as a protective factor against distress. Current Study The major logistical changes to college sports over the course of the COVID-19 pandemic have altered collegiate athletes’ lives in various ways. This population is unique as they are young adults who typically operate in highly structured, physically and psychologically demanding, competitive environments. The experience of the COVID-19 pandemic— COLLEGE ATHLETES’ EXPERIENCES OF THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC 9 particularly during mass quarantine—forced many collegiate athletes into “relatively aimless” lifestyles that in many cases were vastly different than what they were used to. To understand the significance and impact of the systemic changes to college sports, it is valuable to gain a nuanced understanding of collegiate athletes’ lived experiences and reflections of the pandemic relative to their athletic careers. The purpose of this study was to develop an understanding of Division I collegiate athletes experiences of the pause in college sports that resulted from the COVID-19 pandemic. Methods The primary researcher’s philosophical perspective heavily informed the hermeneutic phenomenological approach taken to address the research questions in this study. Ontologically, the researcher maintains the idealist perspective that while there are experiences which humans seemingly share with one another, each person has different perceptions and meanings associated with each phenomenon (Sale et al., 2002). Epistemologically, the researcher believes that the truth can only be known through each individual’s personal interpretations and those of others (Guba & Lincoln, 1994). Based on these philosophical underpinnings, a hermeneutic phenomenological approach was taken to effectively explore individuals’ lived experiences through their own interpretations while also acknowledging the role of the researcher’s perspective and existing biases (Heidegger, 1927). Specifically, the researcher acknowledges her experience as a former Division I collegiate athlete and strength and conditioning graduate assistant, which provided valuable understanding of Division I athletics while also contributing to existing biases. The researcher also acknowledges her personal experiences during the COVID-19 pandemic. Participants COLLEGE ATHLETES’ EXPERIENCES OF THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC 10 Participants in this study were 11 Division I collegiate student-athletes from various institutions and athletic conferences across the United States. The researcher employed a demographic variation approach (Sandelowski, 1995) to include a near-equal number of male and female athletes, with varied racial backgrounds and class standings. Athletes were also recruited from a range of sports to capture experiences that varied based on sport culture and the likelihood that an athlete would be able to continue their career in their respective sport at a professional level. To be eligible to participate in the current study, the athletes had to (a) be at least eighteen years old, (b) be part of a team whose athletic season had been impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic (winter and spring sports during the 2019-2020 season, fall sports during the 2020-2021 season), and (c) have remaining athletic eligibility and expect to return to play for their current team in the following season. Participant demographics can be found in Table 1. Table 1 Participant Demographics Participant (Pseudonym) Gender Sport Age Race Academic standing (2020-2021) Bryce Male Soccer 22 White Senior Daphne Female Soccer 20 Asian Junior Luka Male Soccer 22 White Senior Toby Male Cross Country 24 Hispanic Master’s Devon Male Football 21 Black Junior Paris Female Track 22 Black Master’s Megan Female Volleyball 21 White Master’s Taylor Female Softball 20 White Junior Sophia Female Softball 19 White Freshman Emma Female Soccer 22 White Senior Keoni Male Baseball 20 Hispanic Junior Procedures Athletes were recruited using both purposive and snowball sampling, and data was collected through individual interviews. By conducting semi-structured interviews, the COLLEGE ATHLETES’ EXPERIENCES OF THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC 11 researcher aimed to understand each participant’s experience of the pause in college sports due to the pandemic, and the impact on their lives that they experienced as a result. A participantdriven interview dynamic was established by asking the broad, open-ended question, “Can you talk about how the COVID-19 pandemic has affected your life relative to your sports participation?” (Englander, 2012; Vandermause & Fleming, 2011). Follow up questions were then asked based on the interviewees’ particular responses. Interviews took place virtually via Zoom to securely record and store the video meetings (Zoom Video Communications Inc., 2020). Prior to starting the interview, each participant was reminded that the interview would be recorded, and that only the primary researcher and possibly a transcriber would have access to the audio. Trustworthy phenomenological research is dependent on sampling adequacy, or the researcher’s assessment of the extent to which all evident and knowable experiences of the phenomenon being studied have been accounted for (Bowen, 2008; Morse et al., 2002; van Manen et al., 2016). The researcher assessed that after conducting 11 interviews, common experiences had been clearly established as re-occurring patterns were emerging from the athletes’ responses. While variations in experiences/patterns continually emerged as a result of individual and situational differences, general patterns appeared to the extent that the researcher determined Division I collegiate athletes’ experiences during COVID-19 had been accounted for. Therefore, the researcher terminated data collection after conducting 11 interviews. Data Analysis Interviews were analyzed by a research team of three coders with backgrounds in sport, exercise, and performance psychology. The coders conducted a thematic analysis, following Braun and Clarke’s (2006) 14-step model. The coders first read the entire data set independently COLLEGE ATHLETES’ EXPERIENCES OF THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC 12 to familiarize themselves with the data before independently coding the interviews. A datadriven approach was taken during the coding process to allow codes to emerge naturally from the interviews, without conscious influence from existing theories, models, or research. Upon establishing a list of agreed-upon codes, the coders collapsed them into potential themes—first independently, and then through collaborative discussion. They then engaged in multiple rounds of individual analysis and collaborative meetings to define and refine the primary themes, identify subthemes, and develop a thematic map to serve as a visual representation of the findings. Through this iterative process, the coders identified three primary themes that captured athletes’ experiences of the COVID-19 pandemic, and the impact that the pandemic had on their lives relative to their athletic endeavors. Trustworthiness Various steps were taken throughout the data collection and analysis process to ensure trustworthiness of the data (Elo et al., 2014). First, the establishment of a research team allowed for multiple perspectives and unique interpretations of the data. Second, the research team carefully followed Braun and Clarke’s well-cited outline of thematic analysis (2006) to ensure a thorough and credible analysis of the data. Third, each member of the research team engaged in reflexive journaling throughout the analysis process to document decisions, rationales, and their own reflections to maintain an audit trail (Nowell et al., 2017). Fourth, direct quotes from participants have been included in the results to ensure that the information is being presented accurately (Wadey et al., 2012). Finally, participants in the current study were each sent a copy of their respective interview transcripts to review and provide any feedback or changes if they desired (none had feedback or requested changes). Upon completion of the study, participants COLLEGE ATHLETES’ EXPERIENCES OF THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC 13 also received a copy of the aggregated results to review, though none responded with further feedback. Results The 11 participating Division I athletes were interviewed between October 20 and December 5, 2020. During this time, the athletes had all resumed training for their sports with their respective teams and schools, but with many COVID-19 safety measures in place. Some athletes were facing unknowns about their impending sport schedules, sometimes unsure if the upcoming season was going to be cancelled or not. Other athletes had recently (at the time of the interview) completed seasons that had been modified due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The athletes’ responses provided a comprehensive story of what their lives had been like from the beginning of the pandemic until the time of their respective interviews. Based on their accounts, three primary themes capture how the COVID-19 pandemic affected their lives relative to their sport participation: (a) Typical Structure: Gone, (b) Athletic Identity: Decentralized, and (c) New Choices: More Decisions. A visual representation of themes and subthemes can be found in Figure 1. Typical Structure: Gone Division I collegiate athletes typically operate within a very structured system. Each sport has a clearly defined primary season, competitions are scheduled well in advance, and the competition schedule is published in advance of the season starting. Day-to-day, Division I athletes tend to have heavily scheduled lives during the school year that create a lot of structure, including scheduled practices, strength and conditioning sessions, time in the training room for recovery and treatment, tutoring and/or study hall, team meetings, and community events. However, the structure that athletes become accustomed to was absent during the pandemic. The COLLEGE ATHLETES’ EXPERIENCES OF THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC 14 loss of structure has been broken into four subthemes: (a) competition schedules unknown, and timelines for return became moving targets, (b) athletes removed from typical sport environments during mass quarantine, (c) COVID-19 safety measures implemented upon return to sport, and (d) team dynamics altered. Figure 1 Thematic Map of Athletes’ Experiences During the COVID-19 Pandemic Competition Schedules Unknown, and Timelines for Return Became Moving Targets A major change in the typical structure of athletes’ lives was the uncertainty surrounding future competition schedules and seasons. As the pandemic continued, sport seasons were not only cancelled but postponed with no clear or definitive dates for return. Many times, athletes were given a return date only to have that date postponed further as the pandemic continued: Typical Structure: Gone. Schedules and timelines for return became moving targets. Removed from typical sport environment during quarantine. COVID-19 safety measures implemented upon return to sport. Team dynamics altered. New Choices: More Decisions. Managing training during quarantine. Decisions about future due to additional year of eligibility. Athletic Identity: Decentralized. More time to focus on responsibilities and life outside of sport. Opportunity to explore new activities and find new purpose. COLLEGE ATHLETES’ EXPERIENCES OF THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC 15 …it just kinda kept being like, one week, they were like, “Yeah, we’re gonna start next week,” and then we would get to like the night before and they’re like, “Nope, gotta wait another week.” (Emma, soccer) The lack of a definitive return date made it difficult for the athletes to plan and prepare for their return to campus and sport training: It was a little odd because we didn’t really know when we were gonna be allowed back, like it was constantly changing like, “Okay, we wanna try to get you back June 1st.” And then it was like, “We can’t get you back June 1st, we’re gonna try June 8th.” And then it kinda just kept getting pushed back and…I’m very organized and I like to have a plan and stuff, and so it was like a little hard for me to be like, “Okay, what are we doing? I kinda wanna know what's going on.” (Megan, volleyball) All the athletes returned to training on campus with their teams by the end of summer 2020. However, the start dates for fall sport seasons were often moving targets, and some fall sport athletes were training without any confirmation that there would be a season at all: …at some point it looked like there’s no chance for playing, then at some point it looked like we’re definitely gonna play again, we’re all getting ready, and then it got closed again because the cases would rise again. So I think it was just an up and down, up and down. (Luka, soccer) Spring sport athletes were months away from their typical season start dates, but were still plagued with the unknown of whether there would be a season or not: We don’t know if we’re gonna like have a first game of the season or what we’re gonna do, but yeah, if the spring goes as planned, I guess they’ll roll our schedule out here pretty quick, but everything is super undetermined… (Sophia, softball) COLLEGE ATHLETES’ EXPERIENCES OF THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC 16 As a result, some spring sport athletes seemed to have less confidence in the value of their offseason training, questioning whether there would be a season to justify their training: Now today, we’re at this kind of awkward place of, “Are we even practicing for a reason? Are we gonna have a season? Do we even have track meets lined up?” (Paris, track) Athletes Removed from Typical Sport Environments During Mass Quarantine Collegiate athletes were not in their typical training environments for many months during mass quarantine. Many moved away from campus to live with family during this time, while others remained in their housing near school but nevertheless remained isolated without inperson access to facilities, coaches, teammates, and other support staff. Many of the athletes noted that they were less motivated to train on their own, away from their teammates, coaches, and typical competitive environments: Yeah, I mean, [home is] definitely a different environment, I think, compared to, if we were to be able to be as a team and train together, like I’m working that much harder, I’m motivated more. Like, for me and like a lot of people in athletics…[we] have such a competitive mindset, and it’s really different to be competitive with yourself, compared to competitive to someone else. (Emma, soccer) However, some athletes had access to training equipment (e.g., batting cage, weights) and/or other people to train with from the very start of mass quarantine, even when facilities were closed. For these athletes, removal from their typical environments and structured schedules seemed to facilitate training: …but not like playing, like softball at that time and not going to school, like I was able to… really focus on like my game. Like I would go and throw every day and like just be really focused on workouts, so like, I like that aspect that I was like kind of being COLLEGE ATHLETES’ EXPERIENCES OF THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC 17 independent, like not having to go to school and not having that like strict schedule. (Sophia, softball) COVID-19 Safety Measures Implemented Upon Return to Sport As collegiate athletes returned to campuses and resumed sport training, their schools and athletic departments had implemented safety protocols to reduce the spread of the COVID-19 virus. Specific safety protocols seemed to vary between athletic departments and depended somewhat on the nature of the sport (e.g., outdoor versus indoor, close contact versus spread out). Safety measures were put in place that became part of the athletes’ regular procedures, interfering with their typical structure and routine: Everyday we’d show up to the front of like, our athletic building. They’d take our temperature, give us a wristband if you passed your temperature [check]. Every morning, 30 minutes prior to showing up to any facility, we had to fill out a thing called a daily wellness, uh quiz. (Keoni, baseball) Although teams sometimes shortened their practices as part of their response to COVID-19, the athletes also had to take more time as they intentionally adhered to the COVID-19 safety requirements. One athlete highlighted the additional planning and preparation that it required to go to the training room for treatment: We always had to do extra sign-up sheets, or like text before if we wanted to get treatments…like they had to be prepared, and like if…they don’t know ahead of time…then like you’re not gonna get the treatment that you need, so like...we have to be like super on top of like our schedules and stuff. (Sophia, softball) COLLEGE ATHLETES’ EXPERIENCES OF THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC 18 Many of the athletes were required to quarantine upon return to campus and before they could return to team practice, and some had to quarantine due to contact tracing and the spread of COVID-19 among groups of athletes: Then in July, we ended up having to go into a third week of quarantine because the athletic department as a whole... I’m not gonna name names of teams, but one team was already practicing, had major issues, and so we got completely shut down, so we had to go into a third week of quarantine… (Megan, volleyball) Further, athletes had grown accustomed to practicing as a team or training in particular organized groups prior to the pandemic. This structure changed upon their return to training, as many teams were initially separated into smaller training groups to prevent potential team-wide outbreaks of the COVID-19 virus. Over time—usually the course of a few weeks—practices and training sessions shifted toward what was considered “normal,” as teams progressively practiced in bigger groups or as a whole once again: Their plan at first was to keep each group, you know, with each other, and then you know after you get tested and everybody’s positive, “Okay, now we know that nobody in each group had one single person that was infected.” So now we can come [together] collectively, but for the meantime, our meetings were just running backs, just quarterbacks, just you know, not collectively offense… We…transitioned into a team play, and then we [transitioned] into contact as we continued to get tested and found negative results. (Devon, football) Beyond initially practicing in small groups, additional safety protocols were implemented during practices and strength and conditioning sessions that went against the typical structure athletes were used to in their training environments. In some cases, this even altered the way they COLLEGE ATHLETES’ EXPERIENCES OF THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC 19 experienced their sport. Athletes were required to wear masks at certain times during training (this varied between teams and sometimes between positions), physically distance from others, and make adjustments to ensure equipment was sanitary or sanitized: …at first, we couldn’t touch the baseball with our hands. So we’d catch it with our glove, run to the bucket, drop the ball, like, with your glove, and if you did touch it, our trainers, like uh, player trainers. They would have to like sanitize the ball and like wipe it down with a towel and like…There [were] a lot of rules. (Keoni, baseball) Finally, some of the athletes expressed negative perceptions of the impact that COVID-19 safety measures had on the vibe during training sessions. One athlete discussed the impact of his team being divided into smaller groups: For us to not necessarily see our complete team on the field, for us to not see our complete team working out, it’s a total change of scenery and it kinda like, lowers the tension as far as the excitement, as far as the intensity when it comes to working out, because you don’t get to see, you know, the big groups, everybody pumped and everything. So everything…has been like watered down because of it. (Devon, football) Team Dynamics Altered Athletes experienced changes in their interactions with teammates both due to physical separation during mass quarantine, and because of the altered circumstances they experienced upon return to training. During mass quarantine, the athletes’ interactions with teammates and coaches took place through various mediums (e.g., text messaging, phone calls, virtually playing video games, Zoom meetings, in-person) and varied in frequency. Interactions were formal (e.g., team meetings) or informal (e.g., teammates texting as friends). Once the typical structure was COLLEGE ATHLETES’ EXPERIENCES OF THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC 20 removed, team dynamics that existed prior to the pandemic—relationships between teammates, athletes’ perspectives of coaches—appeared to be magnified during the mass quarantine: The team, we talked, like the players, ‘cause we all play video games together. We all talk on the phone together. Play games on our phone together, like we all are good friends. (Keoni, baseball) The following athlete expressed that she “thought about transferring” at many points during the pandemic “because of the lack of [her] coaches and [her] team doing anything…as a team”: In the beginning, our coaches would call. Like, one of our coaches would call every couple weeks just to check in, see how our families were doing, how we’re doing…I think that was maybe, they only did it for maybe a month, month and a half. They tried. They’re not the best but, they tried. Our team definitely lacks in that aspect of coachplayer relationship… (Daphne, softball) Once athletes returned to in-person training, athletic departments and coaching staff largely expected them to remain in a social “bubble” that only consisted of their teammates to prevent a COVID-19 infection from an outside source. Many suggested that this limitation led them to spend more time with their teammates than usual, which created a unique bonding experience: So almost feels like we’re more, more together now, like in the day, then we would be normally in a fall season because in the fall season, I feel, I feel like we would have a morning practice, we’

'Deporte y Cambio Social': Women's Empowerment SDP Program 'Deporte y Cambio Social': Women's Empowerment SDP Program in Mexico Sofia Espana Perez West Virginia University, se0015@mix.wvu.edu Follow this and additional works at: https://researchrepository.wvu.edu/etd Part of the Sports Studies Commons Recommended Citation Espana Perez, Sofia, "'Deporte y Cambio Social': Women's Empowerment SDP Program in Mexico" (2021). Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports. 8091. https://researchrepository.wvu.edu/etd/8091 This Dissertation is protected by copyright and/or related rights. It has been brought to you by the The Research Repository @ WVU with permission from the rights-holder(s). You are free to use this Dissertation in any way that is permitted by the copyright and related rights legislation that applies to your use. For other uses you must obtain permission from the rights-holder(s) directly, unless additional rights are indicated by a Creative Commons license in the record and/ or on the work itself. This Dissertation has been accepted for inclusion in WVU Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports collection by an authorized administrator of The Research Repository @ WVU. For more information, please contact researchrepository@mail.wvu.edu. ‘Deporte y Cambio Social’: Women’s Empowerment SDP program in Mexico Sofía España Pérez Dissertation Submitted to the College of Physical Activity and Sport Sciences at West Virginia University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology Jack C. Watson, II, Ph. D., Chair Cheyenne Luzynski, Ph.D. Samuel Zizzi, Ed. D. Scott Barnicle, Ph.D. Department of Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology Morgantown, West Virginia 2021 Keywords: Sport for development, women’s empowerment, women in Mexico Copyright 2021 Sofía España Pérez Abstract ‘Deporte y Cambio Social’: Women’s Empowerment SDP program in Mexico Sofia España Pérez Mexico is ranked as the second lowest country in the world in labor force participation, and income and wage disparities specific to women (Gender Gap Report, 2019). “Deporte y Cambio Social” was a train-the-trainer sport-based program grounded in the Social Change Model (SCM; HERI, 1996) that used soccer as a vehicle to explore women empowerment and leadership development in Mexico. Three semi-structured focus group interviews were conducted with 18 Mexican women (n = 10) and men (n = 8; Mage = 23) coaches who completed the program. Using a social constructivist framework, reflexive thematic analysis was used to examine the data. Participants reported that their perceptions of leadership and gender changed, and they identified SCM-related and non SCM-related values as program outcomes alongside increasing their knowledge and desire to create social change for Mexican women. The utility of the SCM within the sport context is under explored and provides opportunity for further research. Future programming should focus on increasing community members’ awareness of deeply ingrained gender stereotypes and leadership inequalities. iii Table of Contents ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS V INTRODUCTION 1 PROGRAMS TO ADDRESS GENDER INEQUALITY IN MEXICO 2 MEXICAN WOMEN AND SPORT 3 WOMEN’S EMPOWERMENT THROUGH SPORT 3 SPORT FOR DEVELOPMENT AND PEACE 4 GROUNDING FRAMEWORK - SOCIAL CHANGE MODEL 6 PURPOSES 7 RESEARCH QUESTIONS 8 METHODS 8 POSITIONALITY 9 PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT AND DESCRIPTION 10 SETTING 10 SAMPLE AND RECRUITMENT 10 INSTRUMENT AND INTERVIEWS 11 DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURES 11 DATA ANALYSIS 12 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 14 1) WHAT WERE THE EXPERIENCES OF A SUB-SAMPLE OF COACHES WHO TOOK PART IN THE ‘DEPORTE Y CAMBIO SOCIAL’ PROGRAM? 14 PROGRAM FORMAT 14 OUTCOMES OF THE PROGRAM 18 PROGRAM SUGGESTIONS 23 2) AS A RESULT OF PARTICIPATION IN THE PROGRAM, HOW DID PERCEPTIONS OF LEADERSHIP CHANGE, IF AT ALL? 24 LEADERSHIP IS MULTIFACETED 24 3) AS A RESULT OF PARTICIPATION IN THE PROGRAM, HOW DID PERCEPTIONS OF GENDER (IN RELATION TO THEIR ROLE AS SPORT EDUCATORS/COACHES) CHANGE, IF AT ALL? 31 GENDERED PERCEPTIONS OF LEADERSHIP IN MEXICO 31 CHANGE IN GENDERED PERCEPTIONS AFTER THE PROGRAM 37 4) HOW EFFECTIVE WAS THE SCM AS A MODEL TO GROUND THE ‘DEPORTE Y CAMBIO SOCIAL’ PROGRAM? 40 INDIVIDUAL VALUES 41 GROUP VALUES 44 SOCIETAL VALUES 47 PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS 49 LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS 51 REFERENCES 53 TABLES 69 TABLE 1 69 TABLE 2 70 TABLE 3 71 TABLE 4 72 iv APPENDICES 74 APPENDIX A 74 EXTENDED LITERATURE REVIEW 74 GENDER INEQUALITY GLOBALLY 76 GENDER INEQUALITY IN MEXICO 80 MEXICAN WOMEN AND CULTURAL MODES OF EMPOWERMENT 82 MEXICAN WOMEN AND SPORT 85 WOMEN’S EMPOWERMENT PROGRAMS IN MEXICO 87 WOMEN’S EMPOWERMENT THROUGH SPORT 91 SPORT FOR DEVELOPMENT AND PEACE 93 SDP PROGRAM CONSIDERATIONS 98 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK - SOCIAL CHANGE MODEL 105 CURRENT PROGRAM 110 APPENDIX B 112 EXTENDED METHODS 112 SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVIST 112 POSITIONALITY 113 PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT 114 PROGRAM DESCRIPTION 115 SETTING 116 SAMPLE AND RECRUITMENT 116 INSTRUMENT 117 DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURES 118 DATA ANALYSIS 119 TRUSTWORTHINESS 121 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY 122 REFERENCES 124 APPENDIX C 140 FOCUS GROUPS PROTOCOL: 140 APPENDIX D 141 PROTOCOLO DE GRUPOS FOCALES 141 Acknowledgements v Dr. Watson: Thank you for giving me the opportunity to be here today. Thank you for your unwavering support, limitless availability and incredible patience! I wouldn't be here without you! Dr. Luzynski: Cheyenne, In you I found not only an incredible committee member, but also a woman who has characteristics that I hope I can acquire one day. The love, passion and dedication that you gave not only to this project but also to me and my learning, are invaluable. Thank you for your mentorship, your unconditional support, and your way of being. I am truly grateful and honored to have had the opportunity to experience this adventure with you!! Dr. Barnicle: I want to also thank you for giving me the opportunity to be here today, and for choosing me as your first advisee! Thank you for always being there for me, you always made me feel that I was important and that my voice was heard! Dr.Zizzi: Your immense research knowledge and passion to share it, was what guided me through some of the toughest parts of the mountain! Thank you for that and for showing me the human side of academia, I’ll take that with me! Dr. Milam: Sarah, in and out of Carruth, I always felt very supported by you. You are the best definition of a supervisor. Thanks for helping me through some of my toughest moments (with clients and in my personal life), I'll never forget how supported you made me feel. Participants of ‘Deporte y Cambio Social’ program: This program was possible thanks to you! Gracias por confiar en nosotros y por las buenas relaciones que creamos! Adam and Andrea…. What an adventure… coding meeting after coding meeting, all sorts of feelings were bounced around… however, the only one left in me is one of gratitude for both of you. Thanks for teaching me how to enjoy the research process, I owe that to both of you! To all my people in Morgantown, my SEPP family: Thank you! Carra: my first source of support y alegria in Morgantown. So many memories, thanks for being in this adventure with me. I couldn't have done it without you! Matt: Wow… what a ride has been…It's almost done… (for me)! Haha. I could not have asked for a better cohort mate! I love you deeply! Spencer: I could have never asked for a better mentor! Spence you were there for me every step of the way (i.e. triathlon training, 6am training sessions, research talk, running stats together/ for me, road trips through the country roads, some amazing food…!) Can’t thank you enough!! Karly: You are a golden one! Thank you for always being up to help, listen and smile, I value you immensely. Ali: We are now connected in a unique way! Thanks for letting me into your life! My mentees: You two have marked my way... I will miss our family dinners!! Tommy: So glad that our paths crossed, thanks for showing me your kindness, sensitivity and huge heart! Luna: Where to start… thank you for being a source of unconditional support and inspiration. Bombastic! Killeen: Buenas! Simply put, there is no one like you, my colleague!! Your sense of humor and infinite kindness made my research (and non-research) days so much better!! Gracias!! vi Maja: Thank you for always being where I am, for the unquestionable visits (even to the mountains!) and for the unwavering support! Thank you for always being by my side my friend, I love you dearly! Agus: Por fin!!! Estamos donde queremos carajo!! VAMOS!!!! Lo único que falta aquí son tus hijos!! Gracias por tanto reina, te quiero tanto. Abuelos: Siempre me costó estar tan lejos, lejos de sus pleitos y sabiduría que nos hacían llegar a través de rimas, dichos, comida o chistes! Los extraño todos los días. Chaik: Gracias por el humor Mexa que siempre me das, especialmente cuando más lo necesito. Los videos, chistes y carcajadas por teléfono me ayudaron mucho mas de lo que te imaginas. Te amo baby! Gabo: Gracias por tanta serenidad, seguridad y apoyo incondicional. Gracias también por el mejor regalo del mundo: Lorenzo: gordo, gracias por tanta inspiración, tanto amor, tantas sonrisas y tantas lágrimas que me sacas desde lejos! Gordo, por ti- siempre! Papas… Escribí una tesis (en otro idioma) de 150 páginas, pero aun asi no puedo encontrar palabras para darles gracias ni explicarles cuánto los amo! Papá: ¡Gracias por enseñarme a dar todo de mí, siempre!, a tener una ética de trabajo bastante alta y a nunca rendirme. Mamá: Gracias por enseñarme y recordarme continuamente que mi valor como ser humano no depende de mis logros o fracasos, de victorias en tenis, títulos, becas, calificaciones, ni diplomas. Sin lugar a duda, es el mejor regalo que he recibido. LOS AMO, GRACIAS. Zenzike: Tengo un doctorado!!!... tambien!!! I could not have done this without you. Thank you, thank you, thank you...te amo con todo mi corazón. ¡Gracias por caminar esta vida conmigo! ¡A VIVIR! Deporte y Cambio Social: Women’s empowerment SDP program 1 Introduction Gender inequality is a significant global issue with women facing discrimination across social, economic, political, and cultural dimensions of society. The term “gender” describes the socially constructed responsibilities and roles that societies find adequate for men and women (WHO, 2019). Gender equality refers to “men and women having equal power and equal opportunities for financial independence, education, and personal development” (UNFPA, 2019, para. 3). Because men tend to possess more power in society, one way to achieve gender equality is through the development of strategies directed at women’s empowerment. Women’s empowerment is the process by which women gain power over their lives (Hargreaves, 1995). Some of the factors needed to achieve women’s empowerment are access to education, health, resources, land and employment (Grown et al., 2005). Women’s empowerment can also occur by creating strategies and programs that help women increase their leadership skills (Sperandio, 2011), self-esteem, confidence, autonomy and participation in society (Fiedrich et al., 2003). The promotion of gender equality is seen as a worldwide objective. The UN Sustainable Development goals for 2030 include goals specific to gender equality and women’s empowerment (UNOSDP, 2020). Currently, gender equality does not exist in any country. Mexico is ranked as the second lowest country in the world in labor force participation, and income and wage disparities specific to women (Gender Gap Report, 2019). In addition, harassment of women in Mexico and a culture of “machismo,” characterized by undesirable male aggressive behavior, are prevalent and the amount and type of violence that women experience are alarming (Englander et al., 2012; Revord, 2017). According to the United Nations (2018), Mexico is among the most violent countries for women in the world. Despite the existence of Deporte y Cambio Social: Women’s empowerment SDP program 2 laws that protect women from these actions, there have not been many improvements; in fact, Mexican cultural norms play a primordial role in violence against women. Mexican culture maintains that women are subservient to men (Anzaldúa, 1999), women are expected to be uneducated, not smart, not outspoken and not independent (Navarro, 2014). Early in their lives, men are taught that they should be decision makers, economic providers and they shouldn’t show emotions (Pick et al., 2006). Mexican culture professes to protect women by keeping them in rigid and defined roles and condemning them if they do not adhere to these roles (Ortega, 2015). Even though many women have stood up to these injustices, and legal reforms exist, societal norms continue to promote a high tolerance for violence against women and accept that men have power over women (Pick et al., 2006). Programs to Address Gender Inequality in Mexico To address the challenges facing women, the Mexican government has allocated $10 million to the Instituto Nacional de las Mujeres (Women’s National Institute) to be distributed among more than 100 initiatives and programs that promote gender equality and women’s empowerment (INMUJERES, 2020). These programs and initiatives focus on violence against women, women’s safety, economic and financial equality, health, and the creation of legislation that protects women. Even with government funding, limited information exists about what these programs entail, and no published evidence exists to show that they are serving most Mexican women or achieving their goals. Further, this funding works out to only $100k per organization, which is likely not enough money to thoroughly support substantial programming. Other organizations and institutions have created programs aiming to empower girls and women in Mexico by promoting education, skill building, and/or the use of sports. ‘Promoting Women’s Economic Empowerment in Mexico’ (Mohiuddin, 2016), ‘Empowering the future Deporte y Cambio Social: Women’s empowerment SDP program 3 generation of Mexican Female leaders’ (Vargas, 2018), ‘She Wins Mexico’ (Vales, 2015) and ‘Fut sin Genero’(Kuri, 2019) are examples of initiatives that have the goal of supporting the empowerment of Mexican women and helping close the gender gap. Even though these programs report successes, none have a theoretical foundation nor an objective program evaluation. These programs have also been criticized for being scarce and lacking engagement. Mexican Women and Sport For women in Mexico, formal exercise has not been a long held cultural norm. Until recently it was believed that exercise should occur while women clean, take care of the children, and cook (Delgado, 1999). Societal norms suggested that sport and physical activity were not conducive for the development of young women. Therefore, it was not seen as attractive or acceptable for women to participate in sports (Ordorica, 2005); and those who did were faced with prejudice and discrimination (Aybar, 2008). Once people realized that sport and physical activity are important for the psychological, physical, and social development of children, in 1988 the Mexican government required physical education to be included in school curricula (Secretaría de Educación Pública, 2013). After this transition, women were encouraged to participate in women-only sports that focused on cooperation rather than competition and aggression (Roth & Basow, 2004). This situation has slowly shifted, giving way to some changes in the social structure of sports for women (Villanueva & Luevano, 2016). Currently, gender equality is required in all programs organized by the Mexican’s National Commission for Physical Culture and Sport (CONADE), and these programs are expected to benefit Mexican boys and men, girls and women equally (Villanueva & Luevano, 2016). Women’s Empowerment through Sport Deporte y Cambio Social: Women’s empowerment SDP program 4 Sport participation has been empirically supported as an engaging and inclusive means to initiate change (Beutler, 2008). Researchers support the idea that participation in sport and physical activity has positive benefits for girls and women. Apart from the general physical benefits, sport can also help to increase participants’ leadership skills, independence and the value of working within rules and structure (Pick et al., 2006). Sport participation and physical activity can help young women have a lower risk of teen pregnancy and greater control over their fertility (Miller et al., 1998); it can help increase women’s self-esteem and confidence and may be an appropriate context for promoting women’s development and empowerment (Saavedra, 2009). Sport can also be used to empower women and girls and liberate them from hegemonic feminine ideals (Saavedra, 2005). It is also argued that through participation in sports women can learn leadership skills and develop social networks that can impact other areas of their lives (Lumpkin, 2012). Although many benefits are associated with participation in sports, it may also be important to consider additional factors when developing sport programs specific to women and girls. For instance, it is important to keep in mind the prejudice and misconceptions related to women in sports, religion, women’s safety, eating disorders, and other issues surrounding gender and sexual norms (Pick et al., 2006; Saavedra, 2005). Doing so will help make programs culturally appropriate, relevant, viable in communities, and sensitive to the identities of the women involved. Sport for Development and Peace Sport for Development and Peace (SDP) programs aim to achieve specific development and peace goals, which are often associated with the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). The eight MDGs are: “1) Eradicating extreme poverty and hunger, 2) Achieving universal primary education, 3) Promoting gender equality and empowering women, 4) Reducing child Deporte y Cambio Social: Women’s empowerment SDP program 5 mortality, 5) Improving maternal health, 6) Combating HIV and AIDS, malaria, and other diseases, 7) Ensuring environmental sustainability and 8) Developing a global partnership for development” (WHO, MDG, 2015, p.1). As evidenced by the MDG’s, the overall goal of SDP programs is to facilitate both individual and societal change by designing sport-based programs where participants can transfer the knowledge and skills gained from programming into their societies (Kaufman & Wolff, 2010). These programs often seek to attain these goals by combining sport with other non-sport activities in a holistic manner (Kidd, 2008) and have been used to support a range of outcomes, including prevention of crime, improved education and youth development, and promotion of gender equality (Hartmann & Kwauk, 2011). Although gender is not a theme that is well represented in the SDP literature (Schulenkorf et al., 2016), researchers suggest that when women are the focus of development programming, they are able to bring financial, social, and cultural shifts and improvements to their families and community (Brady, 2005; Pelak, 2005). Even though researchers have shown that SDP interventions can have positive outcomes (Hayden et al., 2012), these effects do not happen automatically, intentionally designed programs are needed (Cárdenas, 2013). To enhance the success of SDP programs, it is suggested that they include the following: creation of environments conducive to change, inclusion of participants during all stages, adoption of individual and systems approaches to change, cultural considerations, implementation of systematic evaluation, and a theoretical foundation (Dixon et al., 2019). When conducting an SDP program, it is important that cultural differences are acknowledged and respected. It is also important to consider the ethnicity, gender, age, socioeconomic status and background of the participants as well as of the people implementing the program. To address this issue, SDP programs have used a train-the-trainer approach Deporte y Cambio Social: Women’s empowerment SDP program 6 (Sugden, 2006) that enhances the reach and effectiveness of the program by training coaches to implement SDP programs. Research suggests that with training, coaches can more effectively create positive sport environments and have more meaningful interactions with their athletes, which supports their psychosocial development and expands the reach of the program (Conroy & Coatsworth, 2006). Additionally, researchers suggest that SDP programs should be grounded in theory (Dixon et al, 2019). This consideration is two-fold: 1) to explain how and why behavioral change will occur; and 2) to combine theory and practical sessions as a more powerful learning strategy (Lyras & Peachey, 2011). Even though several theories often inform SDP programs (e.g., Positive Youth Development, Social Capital, etc.), there is no consensus on a comprehensive theory or model that should be used (Whitley et al., 2019). Therefore, there is a need to explore the merits of different grounding frameworks as the foundation for SDP programs. Grounding Framework - Social Change Model The Social Change Model (SCM) of Leadership Development (Higher Education Research Institute, HERI, 1996) is a model that focuses on the development of leadership at the individual and societal levels. In this model, leadership is viewed as “a purposeful, collaborative, values-based process that results in a positive social change” (Komives & Wagner, 2016, p.wii). This model is values-based and inclusive of all people since it is assumed that community engagement helps to create change (Dugan & Komives, 2007). The SCM is divided into three major value areas: individual, group, and societal values. These three value areas include other values, namely congruence, consciousness of self, and commitment (individual); controversy with civility, collaboration and common purpose (group); and citizenship (societal). These seven values interact with each other to create the eighth value: change. Change is the ultimate goal Deporte y Cambio Social: Women’s empowerment SDP program 7 and therefore gives meaning and purpose to the other values (Komives & Wagner, 2016). The SCM has been used by researchers and practitioners interested in leadership development in diverse settings (Komives & Wagner, 2016). Although the SCM has never been used as the grounding model for SDP programs, it may be particularly appropriate because it addresses several of the key considerations for effective SDP programs. SDP programs emphasize the value of a systems approach (vs. solely an individual approach) to support sustainable social change. The SCM addresses leadership and change at the individual, group, and societal level through the application of seven values that span these three levels. Another consideration for effective SDP programs is creating an environment that is conducive to change. The SCM is a universal values-based model, which emphasizes creating positive environments where equality, social justice, and service are constantly present. This environment consequently supports change. Additionally, it is important for SDP programs to include participants during all stages of the program and to be aware of cultural considerations. One of the SCM’s core ideas is that change, and leadership are collaborative processes and therefore everyone is encouraged to take part in these processes. Finally, to provide evidence for efficacy and a mechanism of change, SDP programs should employ systematic evaluations. The SRLS is an instrument that was developed to quantitatively measure the different values of the SCM and allows participants to be involved in the evaluation process. It appears that the SCM may be an effective framework for grounding SDP programs. Purposes The purposes of this project are multidimensional. The first two purposes are to: (a) understand the experiences of a sub-sample of participants in the “Deporte y Cambio Social” program, and their perceptions of gender, gender in leadership, and the application of sport in Deporte y Cambio Social: Women’s empowerment SDP program 8 creating social change; and (b) explore the utility of using the SCM as a grounding model for SDP programs focused on issues of gender and leadership. The third purpose is to facilitate my goal of becoming a more effective scholar and practitioner since my career goal is to continue working with people and sports in this manner. The last purpose is to better understand my own experience of how sport has empowered me to be a Mexican woman, and a scholar-practitioner in the United States. Research Questions Based on the purposes of this dissertation, the current study addresses the following research questions: 1) What were the experiences of a sub-sample of coaches who took part in the ‘Deporte y Cambio Social’ program? 2) As a result of participation in the program, how did perceptions of leadership change, if at all? 3) As a result of participation in the program, how did perceptions of gender (in relation to their role as sport educators/coaches) change, if at all? 4) How effective was the SCM as a model to ground the ‘Deporte y Cambio Social’ program? Methods In this study, I utilized a qualitative methodology consisting of focus group interviews with the purpose of examining the experiences of a sub-sample of coaches who took part in the ‘Deporte y Cambio Social’ program. My philosophical perspective has informed the social constructivist approach taken to address the research questions in this study (Harper, 2011). Ontologically, I maintain the relativist perspective that there is not only one reality, but that all individuals create their own unique reality based on their perceptions and meanings of experiences (Sale et al., 2002). Using a social constructivist overarching framework with a Deporte y Cambio Social: Women’s empowerment SDP program 9 relativist ontological perspective, also aligns with this program’s structure and purpose, since it was developed with the intention of promoting social change through sport participation and the interaction between participants through workshops and practical activities. Consistent with this epistemological approach, the methodology of this dissertation sought to give voice to the participants, and thereby understand the meaning they gave to their interactions and experiences. For a more comprehensive overview of the methods, an extended methods section can be found in appendix B. Positionality The organizing group for this program consisted of four Americans (all of whom were born and raised in the USA), one Chilean (born and raised in Chile; a naturalized United States citizen, fluent in Spanish and English), and me. I am the first author of this paper and I am a Mexican woman who was born and raised in Mexico City, Mexico. I have personal experience with gender inequality in Mexico, and I have lived where conscious and unconscious discrimination towards women is a constant. I have always been interested in helping women gain their own voice and based on my own experiences, I believe that sport participation is a great means for accomplishing that. I believe that I am who I am in part because of my experiences in sport. My upbringing and life experiences had an impact on this research process, program development, methodology, implementation, and data analysis. This was beneficial because: 1) I am well informed about the situation of women in Mexico; 2) I believe that because of my past experiences and my fluency in Spanish, I was able to connect with the Mexican participants easily; 3) I may not have been perceived as an outsider, which may have allowed me to get more accurate information from participants; and 4) Given my experiences, I was able to use my positionality to explore the purposes of this research project. Deporte y Cambio Social: Women’s empowerment SDP program 10 I am also aware that my past may also confound this research since, unknowingly: 1) I likely projected my personal experiences and views onto the participants’ answers; and 2) response bias (Huberman et al., 2014) may have occurred if participants felt compelled to respond in ways they thought I wanted to hear. Hence, it was important to include multiple researchers, with different nationalities, genders, and backgrounds, to help decrease the influence of bias and highlight blind spots when conducting the program and analyzing results. Program Development and Description The “Deporte y Cambio Social” was an eight-day soccer-based program that used the SCM as a grounding framework and aimed to initiate social change through the empowerment and development of leadership skills among young women in Mexico. This program was designed to use a train-the-trainer model (Blom et al., 2015; Conroy & Coatsworth, 2006) with the goal of promoting sustainability and expanding the reach of the program. The current study is part of a larger research project, and portions of the overall data have previously been submitted for publication (Hansell et al., 2020). This portion of the project focuses on understanding the experiences and the learning outcomes of a sub-sample of participants in this program and also aims to provide qualitative evidence assessing the potential utility of the SCM as a grounding model of an SDP program that supports women’s empowerment. Setting The program took place at a large public university in Nuevo Leon, Monterrey, Mexico. The Sports Organization Department at that institution shared their classrooms and sport facilities so the organizing group and the professional participants could implement the program. Sample and Recruitment Deporte y Cambio Social: Women’s empowerment SDP program 11 Program participants consisted of college undergraduate and graduate students and local coaches who were, or had intentions of, working with women athletes. Seventy-four Mexican participants (28 men and 46 women) aged 18-57 years old (M = 23) participated in the program. For the current study, a sub-group of 24 participants were randomly selected and asked via email to participate in a focus group interview. A total of 18 (13 responded affirmatively to the email, and five recruited through convenient sampling) individuals took part in the focus group interviews. Participants (8 men and 10 women) ranged in age from 18-29 years old. Instrument and Interviews A semi-structured interview guide was created and used to address the participants’ experiences in the program, their learning outcomes, and if/how the program helped them change their perspectives about leadership, gender, and/or empowerment. Sample items included: ‘Describe your experience of participating in this program’ and ‘Did this program change your perceptions of leadership? If so, how?’. Focus group interviews were used to examine the participants’ experiences in this program. We chose this method of data collection because: 1) the data generated through the social interactions of group members, are often richer and deeper than those obtained through one-on-one interviews (Thomas et al., 1995), 2) data can provide information about a range of ideas and feelings about certain issues, as well as illustrate the differences in perspective between individuals (Rabiee, 2004), and 3) this method of data collection maximizes efficiency while also reducing the participant’s load (Jackson, 1998). Data Collection Procedures Study approval was obtained from an Institutional Review Board prior to the beginning of program activities. At the end of the program, focus groups were conducted by two Deporte y Cambio Social: Women’s empowerment SDP program 12 researchers who are fluent in Spanish and English (Mexican woman and American man). Before any of the interviews started, the researchers told the participants that they were free to express themselves, regardless of the tone and tenor of their comments towards the program, the other gender, or other cultures. Participants were also reminded that their participation was voluntary, and they could stop at any point. All participants gave their verbal consent to continue and to record the sessions. The three focus group interviews were conducted in Spanish and lasted between 43-63 minutes. Focus groups were both video and voice recorded, and notes were taken during (or immediately after) the interviews. Data Analysis In line with a social constructivist epistemological framework, a reflexive thematic analysis was used to analyze the data following Braun and Clarke’s (2006) six phases approach (i.e., familiarizing, coding, theme development, refinement, naming and writing up). All interviews and notes were transcribed verbatim and translated from Spanish to English by a professional translator and reviewed by a Mexican woman to ensure the quality of the transcripts. A research team was developed and consisted of the primary researcher, a secondary researcher (American man who took part in the development and implementation of the program) and a critical friend (American woman, who was not part of the program), all of whom were involved in the data analysis to provide honest and impartial feedback. All members of the research team conducted bracketing interviews prior to starting data analysis with the purpose of acknowledging our backgrounds and values before starting the coding process. Data analysis was mostly based on an inductive (data-driven) approach; however, a deductive (theory-driven) approach (Hsieh & Shannon, 2005) was used to answer the fourth research question. Deporte y Cambio Social: Women’s empowerment SDP program 13 Following Braun and Clarke’s (2006) six phases for reflexive thematic analysis, we read the transcripts several times to become acquainted with the information before coding. We began with open coding (inductive approach). These codes were generated independently. To ensure trustworthiness, each of us kept analytic memos with our ideas and thoughts about the codes, the relationship between the codes and/or any questions (Glaser, 1978). We met once or twice per week to discuss the codes that we had generated on our own and engaged in conversations that explained the reasons these codes were chosen. Transcripts were coded until consensus was achieved (Saldaña, 2013). Once done coding the transcripts, we looked for relationships between codes and put them together into bigger categories (i.e., themes and subthemes). We jointly created three thematic maps (one for each of the first three research questions), and once agreed upon, we moved onto refinement. Each of us re-read the transcripts and verified that all data was represented by the themes and subthemes (Braun & Clarke, 2006). Finally, the themes were defined and named in a way that was clear for readers. The extracts that provided a vivid and compelling example of the themes were selected for the report. Once the three thematic maps were completed, we analyzed the codes using a deductive approach. This process explored the similarities between the themes and subthemes from the inductive analysis and the main values of the SCM (HERI, 1996). HERI’s (1996) operational definition of each of the seven values of the SCM were utilized to clarify what each of the values look like in practice and behaviors. The way we individually categorized the themes and subthemes in relation to the SCM was: 1) the theme/subtheme that fit within one of the seven values of the SCM, and under which value, and 2) the themes/subthemes that are not related to the SCM. We went through this process individually and then came together as a group to generate consensus. This thematic map informed the fourth research question. Deporte y Cambio Social: Women’s empowerment SDP program 14 Results and Discussion This results and discussion section presents and discusses the findings of the current study related to participants’ perceptions and experiences in the ‘Deporte y Cambio Social’ program, specific to gender, leadership, and sport. This section is divided into four main sections that encompass each of the four research questions: 1) What were the experiences of a sub sample of coaches who took part in the ‘Deporte y Cambio Social’ program?, 2) As a result of participation in the program, how did perception of leadership change, if at all?, 3) As a result of participation in the program, how did perceptions of gender (in relation to their role as sport educators/coaches) change, if at all?, and 4) How effective was the SCM as a model to ground the ‘Deporte y Cambio Social’ program? Overall, the combined inductive and deductive reflexive thematic analysis yielded 683 raw meaning units, which were synthesized into nine higher order themes. 1) What were the experiences of a sub-sample of coaches who took part in the ‘Deporte y Cambio Social’ program? In reference to research question one, raw meaning units were organized into three higher order themes (program format, outcomes of the program, and program suggestions), 10 middle order themes (i.e., expectations, methodology, utility of material, empowerment, relationships, values, social change takes time, follow up, time, and participants) and 33 lower order themes (see Table 1 for thematic map 1). Program format Program format refers to the participants’ statements regarding the structure, content and methodology of the program. Participants shared their expectations for the program, their Deporte y Cambio Social: Women’s empowerment SDP program 15 opinions about the methodology (including the structure and the way in which the US leadership was involved), and the utility of the material learned. Expectations. Several participants had negative expectations for this program: “No, this is going to be something heavy, something tedious, three days memorizing tasks…” Which aligned with previous literature stating that women’s empowerment programs in Mexico do not have a very good reputation; they have been criticized for being impractical, monotonous and lacking engagement (Ochman, 2016). Once participants realized that soccer was the vehicle chosen to spark interest in initiating change, their feelings were polarized, some were averse to it: “I think they all said, what? soccer? a lot of people didn't want to do it because of that”, and others were looking forward to it, given their attraction to the sport: “soccer is a global sport, and it is my favorite sport.” These findings underscore the importance of sport selection (e.g., familiar sport vs new sport) when developing a sport-based program to create balance between pushing participants out of their comfort zone (e.g., growth) and building their confidence (e.g., through competence; Bean et al., 2014; Whitely et al., 2016). Methodology. Participants’ preference for and perceived benefits of an active learning methodology was evident: “...the interweave, theory-practice, kept what we had worked on fresh on us, so it was easier to apply it to practice. Pure theory bores you, you don't understand anything, and then you go to practice and you say, ‘and now what?’.” To keep high levels of engagement in this program, theory and practice sessions were interwoven and participants expressed their affinity for this approach. Throughout the program, several learning strategies were utilized (e.g.: self-reflection, discussion, presentations, and experiential learning) to deliver the content. Participants mentioned that these activities were engaging: “... from the beginning it caught my attention, since they talked about what the activities were going to be, these were very Deporte y Cambio Social: Women’s empowerment SDP program 16 neat, I liked them a lot.” Participants’ statements further confirmed the importance of having activities that keep participants engaged, active and entertained throughout the program. These results further support the fact that the methodology, structure and content of programming are essential to promote participants’ development (Holt, et al., 2012). More specifically, enjoyment and engagement are cited as primary contributing factors for initiation and maintenance of sport participation and essential when targeting vulnerable populations (Whitley & Gould, 2010). Further, when training coaches, it is important to diversify the learning/teaching modalities used, given that coaches often prefer educational approaches that utilize different learning experiences that have a strong focus on both pedagogical and practical knowledge (Mesquita et al., 2014). Participants also noted several aspects that they appreciated from the structure of the program such as the way their points of view and different perspectives were welcomed: “... you gave us the guidance and let us do and undo, you never imposed anything, you explained what to do and we were there, you let us express ourselves and you learned, and we also learned”; and the way in which the US leadership was involved: “I really valued that the teacher and the one who is also a director, and the one who is going to be a director, they all enjoyed doing those games with us, and playing, and jumping, and yes we have to run, or jump, that is, that teaches and that kind of value” The type of leadership behavior that participants valued in the US leaders aligned with previous research stating that Mexicans prefer leaders who can be relatable (Raffaelli & Ontai, 2004) since they place importance on building relationships and collaboration with each other (Dugan, et al., 2011). Deporte y Cambio Social: Women’s empowerment SDP program 17 Additionally, participants’ appreciation for the collaborative approach to teaching/learning, supported one of the key SCM concepts: to avoid the imposition of one’s views or position on another (HERI, 1996). Further, taking an approach that promotes the continued involvement of participants can increase the likelihood of accountability and therefore the possible sustainability of outcomes through collaboration (Whitley, et al., 2014). Utility of material. Participants in the current program, ranging from practicing adults to college age students aspiring to teach and coach, valued the utility of the material learned. They stated that many of the topics covered in the program transcended sport: “I think the course has a lot of important things that we can apply at any time, they are all necessary, values, teamwork, coexistence, everything is important to apply in our life”; and were applicable to their jobs in the future: “...everything we talked in these workshops is useful for us when we finish [school] and start working.” These statements demonstrate that participants in this program have thought about where and how they can apply the material learned during this program, after it is over. Even though this seems like a positive outcome, one of the common criticisms of SDP programs is the deficiency of transferability of skills from the field and during the program to other areas of the participants’ lives (Dixon et al., 2019). In sport-based life skills development for youth, research indicates that transfer is more likely to happen if youth find the program content meaningful and useful for real-world situations and if they are motivated to use the skills in alternative contexts (Jacobs & Wright, 2018). It is also important to question the sustainability of the knowledge and skills gained during the program. Without additional programming, knowledge and skills may mitigate over time due to the influence of cultural norms (Cohen, et al., 2020). Furthermore, it is important to keep in mind that participants may be faced with opposition once they try to implement their Deporte y Cambio Social: Women’s empowerment SDP program 18 newly acquired skills and knowledge in their day to day lives, especially if they do not feel safe adopting behaviors that go against their cultural norms (Jacobs & Wright, 2018). This shines light on the importance of further involvement and communication with (and between) participants, following the completion of the program, to identify and help overcome potential barriers. Outcomes of the program Outcomes of the program refers to the participants’ opinions of the experiences and takeaways of the program. Participants shared that throughout the program they were able to feel empowered, gain knowledge and skills, form different relationships, learn about the importance of several values, and recognize the role of sport and coaches in social change. Empowerment. Participants in the current program expressed feelings of empowerment and increased self-confidence. One participant stated that: “this program revived me and brought me back into the world and I quite liked it”, another participant said: “a lot was revived in me and now all those fears, all those insecurities are gone, and I feel like I'm secure, and I can still accomplish many more things.” Other participants focused on their self-confidence and their relation to others: “I think it gave us the courage to value ourselves and always keep in mind that you can do whatever you want obviously without harming anyone else…”, and another participant shared: “I think I reflected and realized, and the truth is that we can change the world more if we want it, and that Mexico and everyone can change the negative to positive.” Another participant shared the way she felt after the program and how she sees herself moving forward: “...in this week I have changed a lot, it has given me more confidence to talk to people, more ease to be able to develop my ideas and that within my sport you want to show your Deporte y Cambio Social: Women’s empowerment SDP program 19 companions everything that you can be able to do yourself, or with them, in order to achieve the objectives.” Participants’ increases in self-esteem, self-confidence and feelings of empowerment were displayed, further supporting previous sport-based programs’ literature which have reported that after the conclusion of the program, women participants showed an increase in self-esteem, self confidence, and participation in society (Pedersen & Siedman, 2004; Saavedra, 2009). Given that Mexico is founded in a patriarchal culture in which women tend to be subdued to men (Ortega, 2015), the fact that women participants felt empowered, with an increased self-esteem and with motivation to initiate change is very positive not only for themselves but also for their athletes. Coaches and PE teachers are role models for children (Coalter, 2010). Therefore, if participants felt that the program was truly a ‘transformational experience’, which helped them change their perceptions of their own agency and empowerment (Jacobs & Wright, 2018) and helped them become leaders (Turnnridge & Côté, 2018), then they may be more likely to use what they have learned while coaching younger generations. Relationships. Participants in this program mentioned that they were able to create new relationships with people from the US: “you didn’t spend time saying, ‘we are the group from the US’, but you were very strategic, and you involved all of us, having new relationships”, and with Mexican participants: “I met people, I would have never come close to, or talk to.” Demonstrating that interacting with Mexican peers and US participants throughout the program allowed them to create new relationships. In Mexico, creating relationships and personal connections is of extreme importance (Jonsson & Snealand, 2018), therefore this is an outcome that strongly aligns with the Mexican cultural values. Furthermore, participants also realized the importance of creating relationships with their own athletes: Deporte y Cambio Social: Women’s empowerment SDP program 20 “...ask them at least, how are you? how about your day? how did you wake up today? maybe these are simple questions, but you never know how the person really is, you never know if the way he or she woke up is going to benefit or harm the team...” Participants’ reflections on how little things can make a big difference, and the impact that the relationship with their athletes can have on their individual and team performance was beneficial given that the coach-athlete relationship is fundamental for the process of creating a positive experience where personal development can occur (Holt, et al., 2017). Previous SDP program research states that after participating in SDP programs, participants showed an improvement in their interactions with others, in their capacities to create new relationships (Cárdenas, 2012), and an increased sense of belonging and positive communication with others (Hayden et al., 2012) which was further supported by participants in this program. Values. Participants also reported program learning outcomes such as the importance of values. Some of the values they mentioned included: integrity, respect, kindness, empathy, communication, teamwork, tolerance, commitment, open mindedness, coexistence, collaboration, service to others, common purpose, and adaptability. These findings are promising as social values contribute to and greatly influence the rate and direction of social change (Burnes & Jackson, 2011). Values influence behavior, and there is a positive relationship between value alignment, followers’ commitment and goal achievement (Cohen & Keren, 2008). Moreover, followers who see that a proposed change intervention is congruent with their own values are more likely to show commitment and enthusiasm (Neves & Caetano, 2009). Since participants were (or training to be) coaches and PE teachers, they talked about the role values play in sport: “Well I think values, we sometimes overlook them, and we assume that they already know it or that they have been taught in schools, I think you must always instill Deporte y Cambio Social: Women’s empowerment SDP program 21 them”; and recognized that values can influence the athletes’ performance: “... and that values influence the performance of your player within the game.” The fact that participants recognized the role and utility of values within their sport and with their athletes may increase the likelihood of values implementation during coaching/teaching sessions (Delgado & Gómez, 2011). Further, considering that several participants work with young children (whose set of beliefs are not fully formed; Ortega, 2015), implementing values into their coaching would increase the likelihood of those children internalizing them and creating a change in their society. The Role of Sport and Coaches in Social Change. Many of the experiences that participants went through, allowed them to reflect on the fact that social change is a process that does not happen automatically. For changes to be impactful and sustainable, the issue must be addressed at the individual and community levels (Hartmann & Kwauk, 2011). Participants were able to not only think about their individual responsibilities but also about the things that they can do to initiate social change within their communities. Participants recognized sport as a versatile tool to enhance social change. They talked about how their experiences going through this program allowed them to have a better idea of how sports can be used for developing greater good: “Well, I hadn't thought about how to help the community before, then in a way I became aware of how they involve young people in sport and take them away from all the problems that they may have, and in low income areas that are dangerous.” These findings are important because given their profession/education, participants spend a lot of time coaching or teaching physical education to children/young adults. Further, since sport has been empirically supported as an engaging and inclusive means to initiate change (Beutler, Deporte y Cambio Social: Women’s empowerment SDP program 22 2008), this seems like a great avenue for participants to continue to do their job while consciously working to make their community a better place. Apart from the general physical benefits, sport participation can also help increase participants’ independence, self-esteem, confidence, and feelings of empowerment (Pick et al., 2006). Participants in this program echoed these findings by reflecting on the power of sport in their own lives: “... sports are something that saves me a lot, and that keeps me cheerful, alert and with encouragement”, and as a teaching technique: “the sport itself teaches us the value of justice, the value of loyalty, of companionship, it is the pure essence of sport.” Sport experiences and outcomes may vary from person to person. Coaches are known as the gatekeepers of these experiences since they are in-charge of creating the sport environment for their athletes (Conroy & Coatsworth, 2006). Participants in this program also acknowledged that coaches and PE teachers are powerful role models in the community: “as a coach you have a lot of power over children, and you can lead them into a good path and develop them that way”, and that they can impact the athletes’ thinking processes and mindsets: “The role of the coach and the physical education educator is very important, because it influences the development of youth, we don't see it, but now we can change things for young people, their way of thinking, instill in them these values, change that mentality.” Participants demonstrated awareness of their influence on their athletes by talking about the importance of modeling behaviors for them: “we don’t only have to say it, but we have to do it, being consistent with what we say and what we do, in training as well as in our life.” Other participants also acknowledged their professional responsibility to teach values to their athletes: “...to be able to teach [values] and the responsibility we have as professionals, as future Deporte y Cambio Social: Women’s empowerment SDP program 23 professionals is high.” Participants’ awareness of their roles and responsibilities as coaches and educators was evidenced. Awareness is an essential part of initiating change (Higgs & Rowland, 2010), therefore participants’ acknowledgements of their power and responsibilities to their athletes (especially the younger ones) is a good first step. Further, the fact that participants realized that for social change to happen, they would all have to take individual responsibility and use their power as coaches and PE teachers to influence younger generations, are positive signs that the train-the trainer approach could be efficient if participants remember the skills and knowledge gained in this program after it is over and apply it at their jobs (Pearce et al., 2012). In the future, the authors aim to assess for participants’ sustainability and transferability of skills learned in this program. Program suggestions Program suggestions refers to the participants’ opinions about aspects of the program that could be modified and improved. The first suggestion was to increase the number of participants and to target those participants who have a desire to implement the skills: “To increase the number of participants and choose the people who want to take it, because some were not interested, they did not appreciate the work.” This suggestion shines light on the importance of recruitment strategies, including selection and number of participants. Participants in the current program were recruited through different means (e.g., personal invitations from the college director, individual sign up if interested in the program, and some were instructed to attend by their professors). Participants who were not interested in the program, might have been the ones who were instructed to attend rather than the ones who voluntarily signed up. Personalizing Deporte y Cambio Social: Women’s empowerment SDP program 24 offerings, and actively finding and recruiting people who want to be part of the program is the first step for a successful SDP program implementation (Lawson, 2005). SDP programs for youth have varied in length, with some lasting as little as 12 days and others lasting as long as five years (Baker et al., 2015). The current program lasted only eight days, and participants stated that they would have liked the program to last longer: “Just that sadly you give us only a week, and if the program gave us two weeks or even three weeks it would be better.” Some shared that more time would have been beneficial to be able to practice and develop their skills: “because with the week we had we did learn something, but if that week had been a more extensive course, we would have taken it into practice, to see if it worked or not, to see if we have more skills as leaders.” Participants’ desire for a longer implementation period was also evidenced by the last suggestion to include follow up contact: “To do a follow up... so that you go somewhere else and then we create something and tell you, hey you know what, with what you taught us we are doing this.” After programs have concluded, follow up interventions and future evaluations are recommended to increase the likelihood of sustainability of impact (Blom et al, 2015). 2) As a result of participation in the program, how did perceptions of leadership change, if at all? When analyzing research question two, all data was encompassed by one higher order theme (leadership is multifaceted), six middle order themes (i.e., reaffirming and broadening definition, leadership qualities, leadership is a process, leadership style, sport for leadership development and means of empowerment) and 20 lower order themes (see Table 2 for thematic map 2). Leadership is multifaceted Deporte y Cambio Social: Women’s empowerment SDP program 25 The perception that leadership is multifaceted was the overarching theme for participant’s changed perceptions about leadership. Overall, participants’ perceptions of leadership changed to understand that leadership is not unidimensional. In fact, it encompasses many different factors including definitions, values, relationships, bonds, trust, followers, and it can be demonstrated, developed and utilized in different contexts and for different reasons. Reaffirming and broadening definition. When participants were asked about their views of leadership, some stated that their perceptions of leadership changed: “My perception did change, there are many more traits, many more things that a person who is a leader has”, and others shared that: “I do not know if it changed, but at least it complemented the idea I had of a leader, which involves serving and how we have effective leadership.” Expanding participants’ leadership definitions is a step towards initiating change given that rigid definitions of leadership and cultural tightness have maintained the status quo of having men (and not women) in leadership and powerful positions (Toh & Leonardelli, 2012). Leadership qualities. Having a shared vision, having charisma, being a good communicator, being honest, inspirational, trustworthy, and just are considered universal qualities of leaders (Dorfman et al., 2012). Mexican participants identified several similar qualities that good leaders possess, such as the ability to work collaboratively with others and being adaptable to others and their ideas. They also mentioned the importance of a leader being holistic, self-confident, having a clear vision: “be[ing] very clear about the objectives'', and being able to manage people by making them feel equal: “... that is at the same level as his collaborators, not above them, so that they can relate to him.” These quotes demonstrate similarity between universal leadership qualities and those valued by participants. Deporte y Cambio Social: Women’s empowerment SDP program 26 In Mexico, there is a strong emphasis on respect in hierarchies and social relationships (Raffaelli & Ontai, 2004) that was noted by participants who talked about the relationship between leadership and respect: “... to respect, whether it be the players, our families and everyone, and I believe that within a leader there must be respect.” Participants also talked about the importance of integrity, encouragement and empathy to be a successful leader: “…[leaders] have to have a good empathy, relationship, integrity, and vision, to reach the objectives without any problem.” These findings align with the Mexican culture given that treating people with respect, being empathetic, and developing trust are dominant guidelines for interpersonal relationships and leadership status (Howell et al., 2007). Even though participants were able to identify and mention several different qualities that good leaders possess, none talked about self-awareness and shared responsibility. These are often considered essential components to effective leadership (Dugan & Komives, 2007; Kezar et al, 2008), and could point to a missing component of program design. Leadership is a process. Participants in this program recognized that leadership is a process that requires constant learning: “A leader must be in constant change, in constant learning, and constant growth as a person.” Participants also stated that effective leadership does not only depend on one person, and there is a big role played by the leader’s followers: “The first follower is important, the followers you have, then you make an impact on them, you can get the idea that you're going to be relaxed and that they're going to follow you at that moment, because that's what's important, how you impact people, for me it's the fundamental thing.” Participants further recognized that leadership is a process where the leader needs to create trust and build relationships with his/her followers: Deporte y Cambio Social: Women’s empowerment SDP program 27 “Yes, you have to know how to listen and talk to them, make them part of the family, soccer is a family, it is a way in which many people integrate and as I tell you, get acquainted with the players. At least: how are you? Some problems that I can help you with? This is a way in which they integrate into the group of players-coach and I integrate them as part of the team.” These findings share common elements with three of the four transformational leadership dimensions: influencing followers through role modeling and relationships grounded in respect (i.e., idealized influence), through the use of unity and a clear vision (i.e., inspirational motivation), and by demonstrating care and viewing each follower as an individual with their own needs (i.e., individualized consideration) (Turnnidge & Côté, 2018). In Mexican leadership culture, there is a similar emphasis on trusting relationships. In Mexico, more than reciprocal relationships between the leader and the followers (Northouse, 2010), personal connections and trust are heavily emphasized for the creation of effective leadership (Jonsson & Snealand, 2018). In Mexico, to gain the support of followers and thereby increase the likelihood of successfully reaching their goals, leaders must be genuin

Short-Term International Sport for Development and PeaceShort-Term International Sport for Development and Peace Programs: A Retrospective Analysis and Critique Informed by Stakeholders’ Perspectives in a Two-Year Follow-Up Adam Hansell West Virginia University, ahh0005@mix.wvu.edu Follow this and additional works at: https://researchrepository.wvu.edu/etd Part of the Other International and Area Studies Commons, and the Sports Studies Commons Recommended Citation Hansell, Adam, "Short-Term International Sport for Development and Peace Programs: A Retrospective Analysis and Critique Informed by Stakeholders’ Perspectives in a Two-Year Follow-Up" (2022). Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports. 11369. https://researchrepository.wvu.edu/etd/11369 This Dissertation is protected by copyright and/or related rights. It has been brought to you by the The Research Repository @ WVU with permission from the rights-holder(s). You are free to use this Dissertation in any way that is permitted by the copyright and related rights legislation that applies to your use. For other uses you must obtain permission from the rights-holder(s) directly, unless additional rights are indicated by a Creative Commons license in the record and/ or on the work itself. This Dissertation has been accepted for inclusion in WVU Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports collection by an authorized administrator of The Research Repository @ WVU. For more information, please contact researchrepository@mail.wvu.edu. Running head: RETROSPECTIVE SDP CRITIQUE Short-Term International Sport for Development and Peace Programs: A Retrospective Analysis and Critique Informed by Stakeholders’ Perspectives in a Two-Year Follow-Up Adam H. Hansell Dissertation submitted to the College of Applied Human Sciences at West Virginia University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Sport, Exercise, & Performance Psychology Dana K. Voelker, Ph.D., Chair Jack C. Watson, Ph.D. Cheyenne Luzynski, Ph.D. Kristen Dieffenbach, Ph.D. Lindsey Blom, Ed.D. Department of Sport, Exercise, & Performance Psychology Morgantown, West Virginia 2022 Keywords: sport diplomacy, community, culture, power, social change Copyright (2022) Adam H. Hansell RETROSPECTIVE SDP CRITIQUE ABSTRACT Short-Term International Sport for Development and Peace Programs: A Retrospective Analysis and Critique Informed by Stakeholders’ Perspectives in a Two-Year Follow-Up Adam Hansell Sport for Development and Peace (SDP) programs are a popular approach to promoting positive development throughout the world, spanning health, education, peace, and social issues. However, scholars have identified critical shortcomings of SDP work, including the potential to reinforce neoliberalist tendencies and values imposition from the Global North to the Global South. Deporte y Cambio Social was a short-term SDP program established through partnership between American and Mexican constituent groups with aims to empower girls and women through soccer. Through six semi-structured, two-year retrospective interviews, the purpose of the present study was to explore cross-cultural understandings of power and intercultural power relations from the voices of Mexicans and Americans involved in the program to offer reflective critique of, and generate participant-informed strategies for improving, the design and implementation SDP programs broadly. Using thematic analysis from a critical constructivist orientation, the meanings generated from the data showed that Mexican and American participants similarly defined power and acknowledged power imbalances informed by a limiting project framework and a sociocultural-informed deference to Americans as experts. Strong, positive intercultural experiences between Mexican and American constituent groups were reported amid often unseen social biases that can be experienced abroad and perpetuated in SDP programs. Critical reflexivity, prolonged cultural preparation, longer-term engagement, and careful construction of SDP leadership teams and program participants were among the strategies informed by the data that were further interpreted to account for the complex realities of SDP programs. RETROSPECTIVE SDP CRITIQUE Table of Contents iii Page Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………..1 The Setting: Deporte y Cambio Social……………………………………………………4 Method…………………………………………………………………………............................5 Research Design & Positionality………………………………………………….….......5 Participants………………………………………………………………………….…....6 Procedures…………………………………………………………………………….….7 Data Analysis…………………………………………………………………………….10 Results and Discussion…………………………………………………………………………..12 General Discussion………………………………………………………………………………26 Practical Implications……………………………………………………………………………29 Limitations and Future Research Directions…………………………………………………….32 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………………….33 RETROSPECTIVE SDP CRITIQUE 1 Short-Term International Sport for Development and Peace Programs: A Retrospective Analysis and Critique Informed by Stakeholders’ Perspectives in a Two-Year Follow-Up Organized sport has played an integral role in human societies for ages, and it continues to be one of the most popular forms of social interaction and entertainment throughout the world. Experts in public health and exercise science have published an extensive body of literature suggesting participation in organized sport can promote the development of a myriad of positive physical, psychological, and social outcomes for youth, including improved health, social interactions, and the development of essential life skills such as discipline, accountability, teamwork, and responsibility that can be transferred to life outside sport (e.g., Holt, 2016). At the elite level, global sport competitions, such as the Olympics and the FIFA World Cup, attract millions of supporters worldwide to observe sporting phenomena believed to transcend race, religion, socioeconomic status, and politics (Murray, 2012). Due to the global popularity of sport, researchers, international organizations, and government agencies have increasingly advocated for sport for development and peace (SDP) programs which use sport to promote positive development in non-sport spheres (Schulenkorf et al., 2016), including social cohesion, health promotion, education, livelihoods, peace, gender equality, and disability (Giulianotti et al., 2016; Svensson, Andersson, & Faulk, 2018). Although improvement across these areas is ubiquitously beneficial, scholars have encouraged the use of SDP programs with individuals from underserved communities domestically and internationally (e.g., Coalter, 2010; Kidd, 2008; United Nations, 2003; Whitley, Forneris, & Barker, 2014). In an integrated literature review, Schulenkorf et al. (2016) found that SDP programs have been most commonly conducted with underserved youth participants, used soccer as the sport of choice, and incorporated either qualitative or mixed method approaches for evaluation. RETROSPECTIVE SDP CRITIQUE 2 Among the critical gaps limiting their effectiveness, however, was the use of apolitical and outcome-focused theoretical frameworks, such as positive youth development (PYD) or social capital, within which culture and context are peripheral. While the authors recognized the use of any theoretical framework as a noted strength, they suggested sole reliance on frameworks that neither acknowledge, nor deepen, understanding of the sociopolitical and cultural landscape within which SDP programs occur, is misguided. Schulenkorf et al. further noted a significant gap related to the intentional engagement of multi-level stakeholders in the evaluation of SDP programs. Thus, evaluation is often limited to understanding whether program participants changed according to a predefined outcome, yet other stakeholders with considerable influence in shaping the SDP experience, including funders, researchers, and program developers, are seldom examined. Other scholars have highlighted critical directions for the field (e.g., Darnell et al., 2018; Giulianotti et al., 2019; Welty-Peachey, Schulenkorf, & Spaaj, 2019). Among these recommendations, researchers have been encouraged to move beyond solely outcome-based approaches that measure short-term, transactional ‘impact’ of SDP initiatives on underserved program participants (e.g., pre-posttests), toward critical reflection of how extant SDP approaches, intended to empower participants, may counterintuitively reinforce dominant ideology. International SDP programs, for example, are often conducted in low- and middle income communities located in the Global South but are typically funded and evaluated by Western stakeholders from the Global North and often rooted in neoliberal beliefs and values (Darnell et al., 2018; Giulianotti et al., 2019; Schulenkorf et al., 2016). Neoliberalism is broadly characterized as the belief that disadvantaged nations, most of which are located in the Global South, would benefit from the adoption of Western systems, values, and institutions (Brown, RETROSPECTIVE SDP CRITIQUE 3 2019; McCarthy & Prudham, 2004). Despite the intention of helping other nations, critics assert a neoliberal approach can reinforce systems of subordination and disempowerment (Svensson & Loat, 2019). Although SDP programs are frequently advertised as meeting the needs of underserved communities, they often entail the imposition of Western expertise and assumed truths about a different culture without the careful and intentional involvement of local voices – an immersive process that would offer the best opportunity for positive change, as defined by the local community, as well as the development of meaningful intercultural relationships (Darnell et al., 2018; Harris, 2018; Hayhurst, 2016; Oatley & Harris, 2020; Welty-Peachey et al., 2019). Importantly, neoliberalist critiques are not unique to SDP, but are rather reflective of a complex, global sociopolitical and cultural landscape across societal sectors. Nilsen (2016) asserted neoliberalism is one of the primary, yet hidden, drivers of any international development agenda. Similarly, scholars of anthropological phenomena have critiqued monolithic definitions of power within international collaborations and encouraged conceptualizations that increasingly consider complexity, fluidity, and context (Adler & Aycan, 2018). Some evidence, for example, suggests cultural perceptions are influenced by the balance, or imbalance, of power observed between members of the same or different cultural groups such that greater power symmetry may be a primary determinant of positive cultural perceptions (Heijes, 2010). Collectively, these critiques call into question how SDP programs can be better designed, implemented, and evaluated to prioritize the expertise of local communities and meaningful intercultural relationships that maximize contextual understanding of local culture, values, norms, and long-term aims. The purpose of the present study was to retrospectively critique a short-term international SDP program from the voices of varied stakeholders involved in the program’s development and implementation, and related specifically to cross-cultural RETROSPECTIVE SDP CRITIQUE 4 understandings of power and intercultural power relations, to generate participant-driven strategies that meaningfully inform future SDP engagement. The Setting: Deporte y Cambio Social Deporte y Cambio Social was an international SDP and sport diplomacy initiative developed to promote girls’ and women’s empowerment and leadership in Mexico using soccer as a platform – a topic selected based upon a sub-award received from a larger grant funded by the U.S. Department of State. Academic professionals and graduate students from two large public universities in the United States (U.S.) and Mexico developed and implemented the program using a train-the-trainer model designed for current and future sport coaches of girls and women based on the Social Change Model of Leadership Development (SCM) – a values-based model that views leadership development and social change as a dynamic process within individual, group, and community domains (HERI, 1996). The program involved two phases with 56 days in-between: the first in Mexico for seven days and the second in the U.S. for 13 days. The American constituent group included faculty members, graduate students, and community coaches who were native U.S. citizens or originally from regions of the Global South, including Mexico. Collectively, this group selected the guiding theoretical framework, managed the budget, coordinated the international travel, designed the program in consultation with members of the partnering institution in Mexico, and facilitated the workshops. The Mexican constituent group included faculty members who were native to Mexico. Together, they recruited participants (e.g., community coaches, college and graduate students, and girl youth soccer players from the community), procured facilities and supplies, and facilitated the workshops in a supporting role (e.g., providing directions, explaining activities) for the RETROSPECTIVE SDP CRITIQUE 5 programming in Mexico. Program participants were current and future sport coaches of girls and women who were predominantly Mexican in addition to a small sample of Americans in similar coaching or student roles. In addition to outcomes-based assessment of the program (i.e., quantitative and qualitative examination of learning relative to the program’s content; España Pérez et al., 2021), Hansell et al. (under review) explored a subsample of Mexican participants’ impressions of the U.S. and Americans immediately following their program participation via focus groups. Participants reported feeling connected to Americans in realizing they experience some of the same struggles and shared optimism in forming future intercultural partnerships. Interestingly, participants also described considerable deference to Americans as ‘experts’ in sport-related professions and idealized sport training and resources in the U.S. Hansell et al. purported it is possible the mere structure of the program reinforced a perceived imbalance of power, in what was meant to be a shared intercultural exchange, which inspired the present study. Research Design & Positionality Method A critical constructivist epistemological framework was used to frame the present study, which acknowledges the influential role of culture, context, and power, both hidden and overt, across human social interactions as individuals navigate, and make meaning of, their experiences (Amineh & Asl, 2015; Bentley, 2003; Hopf, 1998; Levers, 2013; Price & Reus-Smit, 1998; Stetsenko & Arievitch, 1997). Within qualitative research, assuming a critical constructivist lens entails the co-creation of meaningful information through interactions between researchers and participants to promote transformation, critique, and the generation of novel ideas (McCabe & Holmes, 2009). Scholars have highlighted the importance of adopting a critical lens to challenge RETROSPECTIVE SDP CRITIQUE 6 existing societal status quos by questioning, untangling, and constantly reevaluating entrenched ideologies, beliefs, values, and assumptions (Denzin & Giardina, 2016). From this perspective, a critical lens not only welcomes diversity, disagreement, and dissent, but views them as essential components of the research process to garner new theoretical insights, possibilities, and explanations. Qualitative researchers have highlighted the philosophical similarities between constructivism and critical theory (Price & Reus-Smit, 1998). Both are rooted in ontological relativism, which posits that reality is constructed through an individual’s unique interpretation of their environment, context, and identity, and therefore multiple realities can exist simultaneously (De Ronde & Mouján, 2019). From this orientation, semi-structured individual interviews were conducted to provide participants with opportunities to respond to the same questions within a flexible framework and, in turn, promote rapport building, depth of responses, exploration of unique insights, and co-construction of meaning with participants through elaborative discussion (Dearnley, 2005). The present study was informed by a seven-person research team with various roles to include two interviewers and two critical friends whose respective roles are discussed herein as well as an auditor who oversaw the project with the consultative support of a dissertation committee representing experience in SDP, PYD, intercultural collaboration, girls’ and women’s leadership, and the youth sport experience and who offered insights iteratively through the writing process. Participants Participants (n = 6; Mage = 41.5 years; SD = 10.4 years) were a purposive sample of Mexican and American citizens (n = 3 self-identified women; n = 3 self-identified men) involved in both phases of Deporte y Cambio Social in Mexico and in the U.S., respectively. Using maximum variation sampling methods, participants were selected according to select RETROSPECTIVE SDP CRITIQUE 7 variables that influence, or are influenced by, power (i.e., nationality, gender, professional role, role in the program). The participant sample included two Mexican university students training to become sport coaches and/or physical activity teachers of girls and women at the time of their program participation; two Mexican faculty members and one American faculty member from the collaborating universities who were involved in the design and implementation of both program phases; and an American coach of girls and women involved in the program’s implementation. Procedures Following IRB approval for this study, eligible participants (i.e., involved in design, implementation, and/or participation in both phases of Deporte y Cambio Social; 18 years or older) were contacted via email, text message, or private social media message with invitation to participate in the study. This communication described the purpose and nature of the study, the tasks involved in participating, and invited them to further discuss the study via video call. Participants were also provided informed consent and a background questionnaire asking them their name, age, hometown, place of residence, current occupation, and occupation at the time they were involved in Deporte y Cambio Social. All eligible individuals responded to the initial inquiry; participants who opted out cited personal events. Six participants agreed to participate through electronic return of a signed consent form and scheduled their virtual interview. Each interview, ranging from 28 to 60 minutes (M = 45 minutes), was conducted collaboratively by two research team members. The first interviewer was an American citizen and doctoral student at the American university who identifies as a White man. He has been passionate about the potential role of sport in promoting positive social change through his experiences traveling internationally, his soccer career, and his continued non-profit work in a RETROSPECTIVE SDP CRITIQUE 8 rural community in Ghana. Although he is fluent in Spanish, he acknowledged his role as a cultural ‘outsider’ given his limited immersion in Mexican cultures, customs, and traditions. The second interviewer was a Mexican citizen who completed her doctoral degree at the American university and identifies as a Latina woman. Born and raised in Mexico for 18 years before attending university in the U.S. as a student-athlete, she had personal experience with gender inequity in Mexico both within and outside sport, and openly acknowledged her role as a cultural ‘insider’ given her lived experience as a Mexican citizen. Both were involved in the program development and implementation across the two phases of Deporte y Cambio Social. They attended all planning meetings and provided feedback connecting sport-based activities with program objectives and their alignment with Mexican cultural norms. Each assisted the primary workshop facilitators and served as translators between Spanish and English speakers. The interviewers stayed in contact with many of the representatives, Mexican and American, who were involved in Deporte y Cambio Social in the time since the program ended. These continued personal relationships primarily consisted of occasional (e.g., bi-weekly) conversations in-person or via text messaging services and social media. The formation of sustained relationships beyond participation in SDP programs has been labeled as ‘friendship potential,’ which is a common outcome stemming from SDP programs involving stakeholders from different cultures (Dixon et al., 2019). Having relationships (e.g., personal, professional) beyond traditional researcher-participant dynamics is not uncommon in ethnographic studies within anthropology. Day (2012) asserted that role conflicts for qualitative researchers are not inherently problematic, as long as the researchers engage in a robust reflexive process to understand their different roles, their impact on the research, and how and when they alternate between multiple, and sometimes conflicting, roles. Other scholars have noted that pre-existing RETROSPECTIVE SDP CRITIQUE 9 relationships between researchers and participants can counteract perceived power imbalances, enhance vulnerability and honesty, and foster more meaningful discussions during qualitative interviews (Eide & Kahn, 2008; Råheim et al., 2016). Following guidance outlined by Whiting (2008) for facilitating semi-structured interviews, the interviewers began each interview by explaining the study purpose, use and dissemination of findings, their rights as research participants, and protection of confidentiality. The interviewers additionally encouraged discussion of concerns or questions to allow participants to explore the prompts freely and interact with the interviewers comfortably. Interview items (See Appendices D and E) were developed to prompt critical reflection related to participants’: (a) experiences in the program (e.g., describe your experience participating in Deporte y Cambio Social); (b) understandings of power (e.g., what does power mean to you?); (c) perceptions of power within the present intercultural collaboration (e.g., during the program, tell us when you perceived a power balance/imbalance); and (d) additional hypothetical prompts related to intergroup dynamics and power (e.g., would you ever consider coming/returning to the U.S./Mexico to deliver a similar program?). The audio-recorded interviews were transcribed and translated into English by a professional editor who is fluent in Spanish and English. Each participant was contacted to complete a virtual, individual member reflection with the interviewers (Smith & McGannon, 2018) during which participants were prompted with questions regarding their initial interview experience (i.e., what was it like for you to critique, with strengths and areas of improvement, the Deporte y Cambio Social program?). Participants were then provided with a case summary, developed by the interviewers, with initial interpretations from their first interview and encouraged to question, clarify, or expand. All participants engaged in member reflections, RETROSPECTIVE SDP CRITIQUE 10 ranging from 10 to 17 minutes (M = 13 minutes), which were additionally transcribed as data and integrated into the remaining phases of data analysis (Smith & McGannon, 2018). Data Analysis The core data analysis team included the interviewers, as well as two individuals with ‘critical friend’ roles, both of whom are American citizens who identify as White women; the first is pursuing her doctoral degree, and the second is the primary author’s doctoral advisor, at the American institution. Neither critical friend was involved in the design or delivery of Deporte y Cambio Social and, accordingly, were well-positioned to offer perspectives external to direct programmatic experiences. Given the analysis teams’ variable roles, experiences, and relationships to the participants, reflexivity was prioritized – a critical thinking practice to identify and bring into conscious awareness specific personal, cultural, social, theoretical, and political factors that influence the research so meaning can be understood and evaluated in context (Attia & Edge, 2017; Day, 2012; Georgiadou, 2016; Lazard & McAvoy, 2017). The researchers followed guidance provided by Meyer and Willis (2019) to intentionally engage in a structured and reflexive process using journaling and critical collective discussions to elucidate unconscious biases and tendencies that may influence their interactions with participants and the data (Cunliffe, 2004; Malacrida, 2007; McNair, Taft, & Hegarty, 2008). Prior to data collection, analysis team members discussed their role in the program, identity, and positionality (Day, 2012; e.g., What are your underlying assumptions about the production of knowledge? How does my role/identity/education/experience influence my perspective and interpretation?). They additionally responded to prompts, in written form, related to power (e.g., in my community, power means…) and their views on SDP (e.g., my impressions of SDP work are…). The purpose of the analysis team’s engagement with themselves and each other was to process, clarify, and be RETROSPECTIVE SDP CRITIQUE 11 transparent about what each member brought to the analysis and explore how the study, in turn, would be informed by that awareness. This process encouraged exploration of multiple interpretive possibilities while supporting participants’ voices as the primary source of meaning derived from the data (Halcomb & Peters, 2016). The data were analyzed using a reflexive thematic approach (Braun & Clarke, 2019; 2020). Importantly, Braun and Clarke (2020) asserted their guidance is not meant to be followed rigidly, as the process should be fluid, recursive, and flexible. Prior to reading transcripts, the analysis team met to discuss, establish, and clarify norms, roles, and expectations for the coding process that were subsequently revisited at the start of each analysis meeting. These initial conversations included sharing from each member’s reflexive journals (e.g., What thoughts and feelings emerged for you as you read the data this week?); invitations to respectfully dissent with another member’s perspective (e.g., Could this interpretation more deeply consider the sociocultural context?); and acknowledging insights from each team member as equally valuable regardless of their role (e.g., What was it like as a student to receive that feedback from me, as your doctoral advisor? What resonates? What doesn’t?). Each member of the analysis team reviewed the data individually and pre-coded, one transcript at a time, using open coding (Charmaz, 2014; Saldaña, 2006) and an analytic memo to document impressions before discussing as a group. Together, the analysis team deductively organized the codes according to all facets of the study purpose and inductively organized them according to meanings generated. Over several months, the organization of codes, drafted in text form and via conceptual mapping, were iteratively revised, refined, and re-defined as new transcripts were read via constant comparison (Braun & Clarke, 2020) as well as throughout the writing of the study in which all research team members were consulted for clarity, RETROSPECTIVE SDP CRITIQUE 12 interpretation, and context based on their unique role in the program and the study. In the following narrative, participants’ names were replaced with pseudonyms to protect confidentiality (i.e., Mexican participants were Fran, Guillermo, Mariana, and Miguel; American participants were Jennifer and Jeremy). Results and Discussion The following narrative begins with participants’ broad impressions of the program. Understandings of power and culture that shaped their experience are then examined and interpreted to inform recommendations for SDP engagement. Within each section, main ideas generated from the data are italicized for emphasis. Participants’ names were replaced with pseudonyms to protect confidentiality (i.e., Mexican participants were Fran, Guillermo, Mariana, and Miguel; American participants were Jennifer and Jeremy). General Impressions of the Short-Term SDP Experience Mexican and American participants expressed significant enjoyment of, and deep gratitude for, their experience in Deporte y Cambio Social. Participants reported sentiments such as: “…Everyone who travelled, based on what I saw, they really enjoyed the trip. They really had a great cultural experience” (Jeremy); “This trip was an example of how relationships that are formed in sport can be lifelong and life changing” (Jennifer); and “…we still talk on some occasions about the subject of [state]. The truth is we loved the treatment we received from all of you. What happened is that a very nice, very fraternal integration was made” (Miguel). Miguel elaborated: “The truth is that it is an experience I will cherish throughout my life.” Participants’ gratitude for their rich intercultural experiences was deeply rooted in their belief that sport can be used as a powerful, unifying mechanism that can “…teach that sort of balance and responsibility” (Jennifer). Miguel shared: “Sport moves masses. Sport prevents crime. Sport RETROSPECTIVE SDP CRITIQUE 13 unites cultures...Sport creates values. If I am a child, a six-year-old or seven-year-old, and I learn teamwork, communication, friendship, honesty, tolerance, respect, companionship, etc., society is going to be better.” Such positive reflections of participants’ overall experience are much like those reported in response to similar SDP programs conducted between, for example, the U.S. and China (LeCrom & Dwyer, 2013), Jordan and Tajikistan (Blom et al., 2019), as well as countries in Latin America and the Caribbean (Baker et al., 2018). Although belief in the power of sport to support positive and productive social change is hopeful, Coakley (2015) cautioned against overcommitment to the Great Sport Myth that assumes participation in sport is automatically good. According to Coakley, policymakers and others in positions of power have historically taken advantage of this assumption, particularly because sporting endeavors generate significant popular and financial support. While describing the positive “impact on society” that sport can have for “all the problems that currently exist in terms of violence, drugs, dropping out of school, etc...,” Miguel also emphasized “it all depends on the people involved." Germane to Coakley’s (2015) assertion and Miguel’s poignant perspective, sport does not inherently ‘do good;’ its potential depends on how people within a socially and culturally-informed sport context, are positioned to promote positive change. In turn, though often unexplored in broad stroke assessments of participants’ impressions of SDP programs, astute consideration of ways to acknowledge and address power-related disparities within SDP partnerships are additionally vital to the integrity and sustainability of SDP work (Darnell et al., 2018; Giulianotti et al., 2019; Svensson & Loat, 2019). In the following sections, we share insights from participants of Deporte y Cambio Social with respect to the dynamic intersections of power and culture that are foundational to the impact of SDP programs and, based on the data, explore how these programs RETROSPECTIVE SDP CRITIQUE 14 can be approached to maximize cultural understanding, and minimize the reproduction of inequities, while acknowledging the constraints under which SDP work is often conducted. Understandings of Power and Power Relations with the Short-Term SDP Experience Mexican and American participants described power as a paradoxical concept. Guillermo reported: If you want to know a person, you give them power. It’s going to give us the best of themselves or it’s going to give us the worst of themselves. Power…is a great responsibility that can lead us to a positive or negative side with a very thin line. When used appropriately, power was characterized as involving the “capacity to influence others” (Jeremy); a “basic need” that “defines our safety overall” (Jennifer); and a “tool” that can “break barriers and help other[s] grow alongside you” (Miguel), allow one to “do things for others…or society” (Fran), and “reach your goals” (Mariana). Two participants, both of whom were Mexican women, further described power as an aspiration; that is, “a strong word that we should all have in our minds as a value” (Mariana) because it can lead to “more educational and economic opportunities” (Fran). Although acknowledged by everyone, only Mexican participants robustly elaborated on the negative potential of power with contextual examples (i.e., “…in Mexico, power means to do what you want whether it is right or wrong…Many powerful people do things only for them and their family and not their community. I think it’s wrong” [Miguel] and “power in the Mexican context can be understood as an abuse” and a “negative authority” [Guillermo]). Within Deporte y Cambio Social specifically, power dynamics between Mexican and American stakeholders were informed by a complex intersection of privileges rooted in nationality, language, culture, race, sex, and gender. Foundationally, Mexican and American RETROSPECTIVE SDP CRITIQUE 15 participants acknowledged that SDP programs involving a partnership between a country from the Global North, like the U.S., and a developing country, like Mexico, are inherently built upon a pre-existing power imbalance. Jeremy shared: “I think the imbalance of power started from day 1...you’re an American university, so you are automatically considered good.” In reflection of a mandated visit to the U.S. Consulate during the first program phase in Mexico, including its “nice” appearance, “ready to respond” formalities in case of emergencies, and resources “had I needed anything,” Jennifer shared: “I think that just speaks to the power that Americans have and also think we’re entitled to…” Miguel explained: Maybe I'm a little biased because personally I’m a big fan of American culture. I can say that I grew up with their philosophy that I learned through their movies, through their sports, their leagues, but I think that the university issue is amazing; how they live, how they get to campus, how doors are opened for people to be able to be in these institutions of such high prestige. Deference to Americans and other Global North actors and institutions regarding knowledge, ideals, and expertise is well-documented in the SDP literature (i.e., Dao & Chin, 2021; Hansell et al., under review; Hayhurst et al., 2021d). Such deference fuels a foundational imbalance of power on which SDP programs are often built that, despite intentions to facilitate equitable partnerships, nonetheless influences the process through which SDP programs are designed and delivered (Dao & Chin, 2021; Harris, 2018). In the present study, Jeremy shared: “I think we sort of like were dictating the program…the program was in our, the ball was on our side.” Concordantly, Mariana observed: “I noticed Americans had a lot of power.” Mexican participants, however, did not perceive the control that Americans had over the program and its implementation as problematic. Mariana elaborated: “I did not notice any RETROSPECTIVE SDP CRITIQUE 16 [power imbalance]. It was more like [Americans] reached an agreement, you talked about it and told us, and we had to do it no matter what. It was not like an option.” Fran similarly acknowledged the American constituent as the leaders who arrived to “present” while Mexicans “participate,” but only problematized the observed power imbalance between Americans who could and could not speak Spanish: “When you [Americans] came [to Mexico], you were the ones who were organizing everything. So, it could be a number one imbalance, the language, because [American] spoke Spanish and English and had more decision-making power on that side.” Together, these findings suggest that, as an identified world power, ‘American expertise’ and leadership were expected (Collison et al., 2016; Darnell et al., 2018). Further, Mexican participants reported they were treated as equals by the American constituent, which strengthened their cultural perceptions. Feelings of equality were observed most when Mexicans and Americans were jointly engaged in the program’s functions (i.e., “When we were doing the activities in the field I believe that was more of a power balance” [Mariana]; “…in all the activities, those that were done in classrooms, when you shared a talk with us, when we had practices on the fields, when we were in the camp” [Miguel]). Fran reflected positively on Mexicans’ homestay experiences during the program phase in the U.S., which she believed were met with not only equality, but also consideration: I told them that we Mexicans must eat together at least once a day, and what they did was to invite their son to dinner so that I wouldn't feel so out of my house. They told me ‘We have dinner together on a few occasions, but we are inviting him for you to see what a family dinner is like because we do not really have them often. RETROSPECTIVE SDP CRITIQUE 17 Despite positive interpersonal connections with the American contingent in the program, Mexican participants also candidly described, with expectation and acceptance, experiences of racial discrimination while in the U.S. Guillermo explained: …when we were at [name] airport, there was a dark-skinned policeman who just noticed that we were Mexicans and threw our bags. Then I said, ‘I will do it and put it up.’ He saw what I did, returned it, and threw it back again. It seems to me that there was an abuse of power from an authority there. He wanted to show, here I command…However, I insist, we are in the process of social development, and we must be tolerant of this type of action and just understand the reasons why these things occur, only that. But I'm not talking about a generality, it was simply an isolated event that that occurred on that trip, but at least in Deporte y Cambio Social we were treated wonderfully. Fran shared: …we have an idea of the profile of the nationalities in Mexico. Unfortunately many times we see racism, that you are not being loved, that they don't see you as equal, but we see that in this type of program, it was super good, and this perception was not in it…this paradigm that many people have was changed...Many Mexicans think that Americans are not interested in us. But, they were quite interested in knowing our culture, in knowing our food, how we thought and how we interacted with each other. I saw it as a good thing…I see that in this type of program, nationality does not matter, the important thing is people... While intercultural interactions within the insulated context of SDP programs are positive, they also serve as barriers to meaningfully identifying, discussing, and working through authentic intercultural conflict in real world settings. Jeremy, for example, cautioned that the American RETROSPECTIVE SDP CRITIQUE 18 contingent who partook in Deporte y Cambio Social was largely comprised of individuals who were already educated with significant travel experience: …I really would have liked to actually take kids that actually maybe think that Mexicans are rapists, Mexicans are bad people. These are the people that actually we should have selected to really go there, because that’s the aim of the program, the people to people. Although defaulting to university-affiliated professionals and students is a convenient recruitment tool, it prevents the expansion of SDP opportunities to a more diverse group of Global North participants without prior access to this type of exposure and learning and who might benefit most. Further, other literature cautions that marketing SDP volunteer positions to college students as opportunities to enrich their educational experience and boost future employment prospects detracts from the intended purpose of these programs to serve with another cultural community (Clarke & Norman, 2021; Giulianotti, Collison, & Darnell 2021). Specific to sex and gender, Mexican and American participants observed when biases were perpetuated, and at other times challenged, amid program execution. Jennifer shared: …sexism showed up in the management of our trip in that it was too hot for the women’s event to happen, so we didn’t get to connect with just women only…It’s like we’re here for [women’s empowerment] and you’re telling a bunch of women that it’s too hot for us to play instead of asking us if we want to do it. In observation of the American constituent group, Mariana reported: “In the case of [American woman], who was with us a lot, she would say something and then later it was changed to what [American man] wanted; then yes, I saw two unequal powers.” Other scholars have described how, although SDP programs are intended to facilitate positive social change, often unseen biases, specifically with respect to sex and gender that are deeply entrenched in our sociocultural RETROSPECTIVE SDP CRITIQUE 19 worlds, still manifest in program execution. For instance, del Socorro Cruz Centeno (2021) reflected on ways in which the prescribed curriculum of an established SDP program that used soccer to target gender equity and environmental stewardship in Nicaragua subtlety reinforced existing gender norms in the local context. Specifically, women program participants assumed cleaning and organizational tasks (traditionally feminine) while men program participants neglected these chores to play soccer (traditionally masculine). Chawansky (2015) used autoethnographic vignettes to similarly reflect on ways in which her identity as an American White woman influenced her experience and interactions as a Global North SDP researcher; specifically, she recounted experiences of gender bias and sexualization while aiming to empower girls and women in a Global South context. Parallel to these types of experiences were instances in which sex and gender disparities were contemplated and challenged. Mariana explained how, in response to a training received in the U.S., the Mexican girls reflected on the differences in societal norms regarding the legal protection of girls and women: …the girls were saying, ‘so, here, if somebody turns to see you, it is almost a felony, if somebody touches your hair, it is a felony.’ They didn´t know that. Some had the openness to tell me some very strong things that happened in their community [in Mexico], and I think it doesn’t happen here in the United States, not even half of it, because you would be taken to jail or arrested... Such reflections suggest that takeaways for Mexican participants from this training included being more conscious observers of their surrounding environment as well as an awareness of differences in gender protections across cultures. However, although the presence of institutional systems intended to protect the rights of girls and women was both surprising and inspiring, RETROSPECTIVE SDP CRITIQUE 20 these structures have been frequently criticized for operating under the guise that they protect girls and women, when, that is not always the case. For instance, critics of Title IX, which was designed to provide institutional protection for girls and women within higher education, assert that navigating it’s policies can be complicated, traumatic, and unsuccessful for many survivors of sexual violence. Instead of taking firm, no tolerance stance on sexual misconduct, administrators, and others in positions of power often maintain a silent, neutral position to protect their own public image as well as their institution’s (Cruz, 2021: Delaet & Mills, 2018). Thus, Mexican participants may have been left with an incomplete idea of the effectiveness and procedures for complex institutional policies designed to protect girls and women in the U.S. Explicating the Realities of SDP Programs with Recommendations Forward Despite perceptions of Deporte y Cambio Social being generally “well-designed” and “super well-organized,” time was a significant barrier (e.g., “…it was just too much to fit into a week” [Jennifer]; “…everything was in a hurry” [Mariana]). Mexican participants reflected on the busy daily itineraries developed by the American cohort. Miguel shared: …honestly, nobody wanted to go back home. We all wanted to stay a few more days because a very good atmosphere was created...Why do I tell you more time? Because almost every day was very busy and went by very fast. Mariana echoed: “Take it more slowly, only that. I know it was tight since you had to fulfill a lot. But you can give them time to relax or do their own things and let them be with each other.” Mexican participants’ observations of the program itinerary, which largely aligned with American cultural norms on productivity and punctuality, are one example of the problematic discordance between meeting the demands of a grant originating from a Global North context and norms of local culture in many Global South communities (Hayhurst et al., 2021c; Oxford & RETROSPECTIVE SDP CRITIQUE 21 McLachlan, 2018). Within the noted time constraints, participants also explained they had limited role clarity (e.g., “I feel like if [my role] was a test question, I would probably not get it correct” [Jennifer]; “I believe that knowledge, to know what we were going to do and why, would have facilitated everything that happened” [Mariana]). Concordantly, Jeremy described the coordination of lodging, meals, budgeting, and transportation as a significant constraint on time and resources that made for an “intense” experience. He further acknowledged significant investment from the Mexican constituent group: “We were just asking them to be partners, collaborators without any cost, but of course they had costs… not only during the event but prior to the event…if you put money into the time of the people.” Thus, the very structure of the funding opportunity and its associated demands were believed to significantly complicate the ability to more meaningfully engage with the Mexican stakeholders during the program’s design. Jeremy added: …it was not a program that I would say was totally built with them…at the very beginning, we talked about ‘we need to build this program with them, so it’s going to be more inclusive’…I think it was more a logistics issue…I think we had the intentions to build something with them, but it was so complicated to really have a clear idea of what we want to do...we were moving, right? Because of the logistics, because of the time… Managing complex logistical barriers, including navigating the landscape of SDP funding sources, has been discussed extensively in the literature as a competitive, detailed, and exhausting process (e.g., Darnell et al., 2018; Svensson & Loat, 2019). Scholars have identified considerable discordance between the primary, outcome-focused objectives of funders (e.g., to demonstrate evidence of pre-post change and positive experiences) and additional, process focused objectives of SDP researchers and practitioners (e.g., empowering communities and RETROSPECTIVE SDP CRITIQUE 22 building sustainable programs; Giulianotti et al., 2019). To this point, Jeremy explained: “It’s a little bit artificial…when you create this positive feeling. And by creating these positive feelings, I think you are achieving in a certain way the [funder’s] purposes...” He elaborated: “…They require a lot of time and involvement into setting up the programs with all these demands, but sometimes you lose focus of what is the core problem.” Jennifer reflected on the broader implications of a short-term SDP program: "With more time and experience we could have made this a richer experience about women, coaching, social change, and sport.” She added: …I don’t really think we impacted another generation of women. We just impacted the women that were there. So, I would have liked to be able to encourage females more specifically to take and apply what they learned. I thought we were kind of able to encourage the group generally, but I would have liked more in that. Although a subsample of Mexican participants designed and implemented abbreviated workshops with pupils at two Mexican high schools following their own workshop participation, there may not have been sufficient opportunity for participants to apply and/or share their knowledge and experience from the program. Indeed, Mexican participants described their cultural learning, including site seeing, as their “favorite” or “best parts of the trip.” While cultural learning is foundational to any SDP initiative, coupling an immersive, first-time cultural experience with a social change program simultaneously is a known challenge of short-term SDP endeavors (e.g., Dao & Chin, 2021; Giulianotti et al., 2021; Whitley et al., 2018). Scholars have also problematized the frequent prioritization of funding new investigators that make learning from experience and sustained careers in SDP difficult (Coalter, 2010; Harrison & Boehmer, 2020; Kidd, 2008). Jeremy RETROSPECTIVE SDP CRITIQUE 23 explained: “I think I would like to really take the time to understand how people have done it. Because I think many of the programs probably experienced the same as we did.” Accordingly, participants offered their ideas toward SDP programs that can reasonably accomplish their central purposes to support meaningful intercultural engagement while fostering culturally relevant learning and reflection of key social issues. Among these recommendations, members of the Mexican contingent suggested SDP programs be longer in duration and that the experiences across countries be increasingly parallel. Fran explained: I saw how an American family lived. I realized the great differences. Maybe if you had stayed with a family when you came to Mexico, you would have also realized it too. You would not only have seen it from the outside…I would not change anything more than to see the way that, when you come, you could stay in the house of Mexicans and not in a hotel because it is very different. Guillermo similarly reported: [I wish] that Americans had more time in our country, that it was at least balanced. Because we stayed two weeks and it seems to me that you were only six or seven days. Then I would like it to be the same time so that it was wider, be calmer, and we could enjoy it a little more, and that this opportunity could be used to present more things about our country…of its people who are wonderful, that you could live it in a better way… Other Mexican participants added, “…it would have been better if it would have been more days, obviously. I know it is not simple to be accepted one month” (Mariana) and “at least four weeks instead of two” (Miguel). Relatedly, participants reflected on the importance of follow-up opportunities for continued, long-term engagement with program stakeholders and the programming. Mariana RETROSPECTIVE SDP CRITIQUE 24 shared: “I believe there should be a follow up...Let’s see what we did or how this has impacted.” Jennifer similarly explained: “…had there not been a global pandemic, I would have really hoped that there was some sort of follow-up, because I think that would have been where we saw how sustainable this was or how to make this sustainable.” Interpersonally, Miguel noted Mexicans and Americans “are still in contact” and “developed a very nice friendship.” As an indicator of the importance of sustained engagement, several Mexican participants expressed sincere appreciation for the opportunity to discuss their experiences toward the present research. Mariana reported: “…you are considering me in something that maybe can be of impact on the next generation, then I feel great; I feel considered.” Without strategic and intentional continuity, however, the ability to transfer ownership and responsibility of the program to local communities is compromised. Fran explained: “Since we came back, 80% of participants asked if there was going to be something similar and if they could volunteer for another program or another visit...We told them ‘We did not bring the program, it isn’t ours.’” Participants further described the importance of engaging in considerable introspection, reflection, discussion, cultural preparation, and relationship building prior to travel and throughout the experience. Jennifer explained: “When we design programs, we have these great ideas, but we don’t know the participants yet. I see more successful mentoring programs being more organic where there’s possibility for connection.” Fran stated: Maybe [more preparation] on what our culture is like. Although you do not know a person well, even if they have just been introduced to you, we greet with a kiss and a hug…Telling Americans this would have been useful so they wouldn't be scared… Guillermo added: RETROSPECTIVE SDP CRITIQUE 25 It probably would have been good if the [Mexicans] who visited knew more about [the United States]. Maybe 80% had never visited the United States before. Many had never left Mexico before. The ones for whom it was the first time did not know practically anything about it…Maybe if they knew a little about the cultural aspect before going. Jennifer, in her interview, reflected upon her experience as an English-speaking American in Mexico that serves as an example of the type of critical reflection that is warranted throughout the SDP experience from beginning to end: I was in the middle of a group, and I suddenly could not remember anything in Spanish. I had been speaking in Spanish, I mean not well, but at least enough that the group understood me. And as I kept talking, I was like ‘yeah…I don’t know anymore’ (laughter). It’s just this silly example but in that moment, I felt a distinct shift in how much power I had and how much I could help. I pretty much felt worthless to the group and to the project. She added: “This expectation that we went there and didn’t have to speak Spanish speaks so much to our power and privilege. People wanting to learn from us regardless of if they can understand us is pretty amazing.” Central to the core purpose of SDP programs, women participants across cultures recommended considerable attention to understandings of sex and gender and the intentional construction of representative leadership teams. Specifically, Mexican and American women participants discussed the prominent role of women within the project, but also wished more had been involved given the program’s emphasis on women’s empowerment. Fran shared: I saw when you visited Mexico that most of the visitors were women; both the girls who coached soccer, the organizers, and many of the researchers who came were women, so I RETROSPECTIVE SDP CRITIQUE 26 think it was already focused on women’s empowerment and all the activities that were done were usually led by women. Mariana added: I would have liked more women teachers and not as many men teachers. Also, more people from the sports arena, because if your goal is to use sport and empower women through that sport, more sport professionals should have been [involved]…there were teachers that had nothing to do with that sport and they were men. I don’t mean that only women should be included, but I think that if we want to empower girls, we [the Mexican constituent group] should have taken more women teachers. General Discussion Although our findings suggest that Mexican and American participants valued their experience in Deporte y Cambio Social, our subsequent analysis underscores the importance of engaging in critical and constructive reflection as a vital component of the SDP experience for all stakeholders. Indeed, garnering participants’ perspectives on some of the common challenges and related power dynamics within the SDP sphere is a noted strength of the current study, as is the significance of the candid accounts shared by participants and the humility of those engaged in the project who were willing to critique their own work and experience. To create dissonance with the potentially unsettling data shared in this study, it is easy to perceive the challenges discussed herein as unique and isolated to Deporte y Cambio Social. However, the alignment of the present data with a preponderance of recent conceptual critiques of SDP work (Darnell et al., 2018; Giulianotti et al., 2019; Hayhurst et al., 2021a; Whitley et al., 2018) suggest the conclusions are indeed transferable to a larger body of SDP programs that have, and continue to be, conducted. Following a process of critical and admittedly difficult introspection and RETROSPECTIVE SDP CRITIQUE 27 reflection, we encourage others associated with SDP programs to engage in a similar reflexive experience as a solution toward greater awareness, understanding, and increasingly effective navigation of known challenges. Indeed, the purpose of this study was not to dismiss the important potential of SDP programs and the overwhelmingly positive experiences that have been described here and in other literature (Baker et al., 2018; Blom et al., 2019; LeCrom & Dwyer, 2013), but rather to suggest that the broad stroke impressions of SDP programs capture only one chapter of a much longer and more nuanced story that will meaningfully inform the future of SDP work, if told. To begin, while the Mexican participants in this study reported enjoying and appreciating the opportunity to interact with and learn from Americans and engage in American culture, at a deeper level, these cultural experiences also served to reinforce a neoliberal view of Americans as experts and the U.S. as ideal compared to Mexicans and Mexico (Hansell et al., under review). In fact, when Mexican participants were asked whether they would consider leading a similar program in which they would share their expertise with Americans, they responded with repeated confusion over the question to suggest this possibility was difficult to conceive. As a world power, Americans assuming the role of deliverers of expertise and experience, mostly in English, was expected, which reflects the larger power disparities upon which this, and other SDP programs are built. While positive interpersonal exchanges with those directly in the American constituent promoted feelings of value, worth, and equality, discriminatory experiences while abroad were also expected and viewed as a normal aspect of human existence and development. Other research has highlighted understandings of power as core foundations of SDP programs (e.g., Hayhurst et al., 2021a). Our findings suggest that conceptualizations of power can differ across stakeholders and cultures, which underscores the importance of explicitly discussing RETROSPECTIVE SDP CRITIQUE 28 power (im)balances both within and across cultural groups and how they will be addressed, potentially as part of the relationship-building and familiarization process early on. As one example, understanding that others may come to know power as abusive comes with tremendous responsibility to attend to power dynamics so as not to reproduce harm. Participants’ responses further suggest that the most rewarding elements of the program were the cultural experiences and the person-to-person activities. Interestingly, Mexican participants’ responses related to their experiences during the second program phase in the U.S. were almost entirely about the cultural activities, which included excursions to local landmarks, tours of the university campus, spending an entire day in a major American city where participants were given money to shop, and tours of professional baseball and American football stadiums, all of which were included as part of the program’s itinerary. Mexican participants’ responses suggest what was unaddressed was a truly parallel experience in Mexico that would have allowed Americans to similarly engage and learn about Mexican culture more deeply. Aligned with contact theory (Allport, 1954) and SFDT (Dixon et al., 2019; Lyras & Welty-Peachey, 2011), the person-to-person interactions within the program seemingly helped members of each group connect over shared human experiences, which resulted in the formation of personal and professional interpersonal relationships across cultures, many of which have been sustained since the program ended. Admiration of American ideals such as work ethic and motivation were described by Mexican participants in focus group interviews conducted immediately after the first program phase in Mexico (Hansell et al., under review), and findings from the present study suggest the cross-cultural experiences were valued by both Mexican and American stakeholders within Deporte y Cambio Social. Yet, while the program’s emphasis on cultural activities emphasized by the funder is an important part of intercultural engagement, it RETROSPECTIVE SDP CRITIQUE 29 also served to distract from the program’s emphasis on women’s empowerment in attempting to accomplish both simultaneously. Such distraction is evidenced across participants’ responses that were largely devoid of commentary about the program itself and is an important indicator of how to position SDP work differently in the future. Practical Implications Participants’ recommendations for future endeavors to have longer-term opportunities to engage with program stakeholders and materials corresponds with a common critique of SDP programs and their typical short duration. Limited information exists regarding the long-term implications of SDP programs, and researchers have asserted that collecting follow-up data over time is a major challenge due to barriers such as misunderstandings of the role of data collection among community members, logistical constraints for Western researchers in the balance of other professional responsibilities such as teaching, and limited professional and financial support for long-term objectives (Blom et al., 2015; Schulenkorf et al., 2016; Welty-Peachey & Cohen, 2016). Within the present study, and particularly in the member reflections, participants’ expressions of appreciation and gratitude toward the researchers for including them in the present s