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A Qualitative Study of College Athletes’ Experiences of the COVID-19 Pandemic A Qualitative Study of College Athletes’ Experiences of the COVID-19 Pandemic Carra Johnson West Virginia University, Cj0011@mix.wvu.edu Follow this and additional works at: https://researchrepository.wvu.edu/etd Part of the Psychology Commons, and the Sports Studies Commons Recommended Citation Johnson, Carra, "A Qualitative Study of College Athletes’ Experiences of the COVID-19 Pandemic" (2021). Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports. 10161. https://researchrepository.wvu.edu/etd/10161 This Dissertation is protected by copyright and/or related rights. It has been brought to you by the The Research Repository @ WVU with permission from the rights-holder(s). You are free to use this Dissertation in any way that is permitted by the copyright and related rights legislation that applies to your use. For other uses you must obtain permission from the rights-holder(s) directly, unless additional rights are indicated by a Creative Commons license in the record and/ or on the work itself. This Dissertation has been accepted for inclusion in WVU Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports collection by an authorized administrator of The Research Repository @ WVU. For more information, please contact researchrepository@mail.wvu.edu. A Qualitative Study of College Athletes’ Experiences of the COVID-19 Pandemic Carra G. Johnson Dissertation submitted to the College of Physical Activity and Sport Sciences at West Virginia University in partial fulfillment of the requirements of Doctor of Philosophy in Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology Jack C. Watson II, PhD, Chair Danielle Davidov, PhD Damien Clement, PhD Scott Barnicle, PhD Department of Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology Morgantown, West Virginia 2021 Keywords: sport psychology, collegiate athletes, COVID-19, pandemic, phenomenology, thematic analysis Copyright 2021 Carra Johnson ABSTRACT A Qualitative Study of College Athletes’ Experiences of the COVID-19 Pandemic Carra Johnson The novel coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic took a toll on collegiate athletics, as all in-person sport activity was shut down temporarily, and competition schedules were heavily altered. The purpose of this phenomenological study was to develop an understanding of how Division I collegiate athletes experienced the pause in college sports that resulted from the COVID-19 crisis, during the first seven to nine months of the pandemic (depending on the time of interview). Between October and December 2020, eleven participants (six females, five males) engaged in individual, semi-structured interviews in which they were asked to describe how the COVID-19 pandemic affected their lives relative to their sport participation. A three-member research team conducted a thematic analysis of the interview data to identify primary themes and subthemes. Three primary themes were identified that captured the pandemic’s impact on the athletes: (a) Typical Structure: Gone, (b) Athletic Identity: Decentralized, and (c) New Choices: More Decisions. The findings align with athletes’ reported experiences during the COVID-19 pandemic in previous qualitative studies, while also adding novelty by focusing on collegiate athletes and capturing their unique experiences during the pandemic. Athletes’ experiences are discussed in relation to motivational theories, athletic identity, and retirement from sport. The author also presents several practical implications for athletes, coaches, support staff, and leaders within Division I college athletics. COLLEGE ATHLETES’ EXPERIENCES OF THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC iii Acknowledgements So many people have played some sort of role in my ultimate completion of this little paper, I’m not sure I’ll ever be able to acknowledge them all. From every faculty member in the SEPP program, to every barista-turned-confidant in every Starbucks in Morgantown, to the crew of monks + visitors + Richard at Bhavana Society, to the always-joyous Trader Joe’s employees in Pittsburgh, to amazing friends all over the country, it’s taken a serious village to get here. But within that village, I’ve had some particularly impactful guides and neighbors: DR. WATSON. I will never forget your words when I answered the phone that Monday morning in February 2016: “Are you ready for four more winters in West Virginia?” Turns out, no, I wasn’t. In so many ways, I wasn’t. Thank you for taking a chance on me, trusting that I was worth your time and energy as an advisor, and giving me the opportunity to be part of this program. It was the hardest experience of my life, and as a result I have grown and learned more from it than anything else—as a student, instructor, researcher, and person. That’s your major, semi-indirect impact on my life. Directly, I’ve become a much better researcher, writer, instructor, and critical thinker through all of our conversations, projects, and back-and-forth feedback. I’ve learned to take criticism more effectively, and have also learned when it makes sense to stand my ground and provide rationale for my perspective when we’re not in agreement. You have had a major impact in ways that have molded me indefinitely, and I hope I was worth taking the chance. Thanks for everything. DANIELLE. This project, first of all, would have been a much different experience for me without your guidance and qualitative expertise—and would not be as strong as it is now. I left every one of our meetings with far more clarity than I had going into them. Through your support and guidance, I have learned so much about qualitative research and my confidence as a qual researcher has grown immensely. However, far beyond this dissertation, you are a model of how I hope to operate and communicate as a professional. I have come to respect and look up to you more than I can express. Thank you for being a part of this. DR. CLEMENT. I think you have been such a cool, unique addition to my committee. Your expertise in injury is technically so different from my main focus of the pandemic, and yet unbelievably relevant. And while I’m glad to have your expertise, I’m most grateful for the perspective and positive energy that you bring to whatever room (virtual or in person) that you’re in. Since first interviewing with you during interview weekend five years ago, you’ve had a way of making me feel supported while simultaneously pushing me with critical questions. It’s an incredible combo that I am inspired to emulate. Thank you for bringing it all to this project. DR. BARNICLE. Throughout my time at WVU, if I knew nothing else, I always knew that I had your unwavering support and encouragement. Through many years of tension and discomfort, some of the only times I felt at ease were during our interactions—whether it was crossing paths in the hallway or discussing teaching techniques in a Friday afternoon seminar. As I started to pursue this project, I decided that I wanted to feel supported and encouraged rather than tense and pressured—I put plenty of pressure on myself already. While I have always valued your feedback and the expertise that comes with your background in applied work, nothing has meant more than knowing you’re in my corner. A thousand times thank you. COLLEGE ATHLETES’ EXPERIENCES OF THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC iv MATT CAMPBELL. I really don’t know where to start in expressing my gratitude. I’m truly overwhelmed by the way you have so quickly, willingly, and kindly jumped onto the tail end of this project when I reached out. You’ve been unbelievably kind, supportive, and easy to work with in the small but wildly important sliver of time during which I’ve asked for your help. I’m convinced that academia, and the world, would benefit from having more people like you. Following your example, I am inspired to hopefully be one of those people, too. I can’t thank you enough! KATE & JAY. I address you here as my research team, but you have also been incredible friends to me for some of my most challenging years. How incredible (or maybe, not particularly shocking?) that two of the people in the program who I felt best understood me also turned out to be absolutely key players in my dissertation. In contributing so much time and energy to this tedious project, I’ve compared your selflessness to the selflessness of organ donors—and I stand by the comparison. I don’t know why anyone agrees to get involved with something like this, and it was so important to me to do this right, so there really wasn’t any cutting corners. I asked so much of you both, and you both generously and genuinely committed (and, taught me so much throughout the process). I’m so proud of what we’ve done here—the depth and the big-picture perspective that we achieved in our analyses seem to be unmatched in similar studies. I attribute that to the beautiful way that each of you looks at the world— thoughtfully, critically, through lenses that effectively zoom in and out to capture the whole story. It is because of this, along with your kindness and authenticity, that I consider you some of my most cherished friends regardless of the distance between us. For every conversation and adventure from the moment I arrived in Morgantown—thank you for all of it. REEN. As we’ve gotten older, I’ve realized one of my greatest joys in life is making you laugh (even—and maybe especially—when it’s at my expense). Like the time I brought up hermeneutic phenomenology during fam dinner (“what did you just say??”). Thank you for bringing the joy, challenge, and humor to my research papers the last few years—fingers crossed this is the one that gets us published! And, a big thank you for your support and encouragement throughout this process—it’s so subtle, but means everything to me. I am so impressed by you and how you live your life, and I hope to make you even half as proud of me as I am of you. I love you. –Doc DAD. Thank you for continuing to be the best listener I know, and for helping me see that everything isn’t as serious as I sometimes feel or act like it is, better than anyone else can. This whole process—moving, school, and this project—was tough on me, and when it felt like too much to handle, you were usually my first call. You’ve been my most steady, reliable source of support over these years, and I’m so fortunate that I could trust you to pick up the phone nine out of every 10 times I called (even though you don’t think I call that much!). I’m not sure if I’d be at this point, finishing this up, without the consistent safe space you’ve provided. Love, #1. MOM. You’ve answered more tearful phone calls in these years than any parent should have to endure. Thank you for your endless support, especially through the moments when I know my hurt caused you hurt. “If you’re that unhappy, just come home.” I know you meant it literally, but somehow it pushed me the other way and ultimately resulted in a completed doctoral COLLEGE ATHLETES’ EXPERIENCES OF THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC v dissertation. Maybe it’s not super surprising, considering a lot of this drive, strength, and work ethic comes from you (and grandma). I love you so much. TJ. You landed in my life while I was deep in this little school project, and wow, what a critical time. I’m so grateful for your direct support—giving me the space to work, being an unofficial “critical friend” in the analysis process, going on coffee shop work hangs, making sure I was always fed. However, I’m most grateful for the intangible balance that you’ve brought to my world—a balance that gives me clearer perspective on what’s important to me, and that (maybe counterintuitively) has helped me focus deeply on my research at a time when I really needed to. I think the world of you—the natural, not-tainted-by-man world—and can’t wait for my turn to be the “dissertation spouse.” I love you. ERIKA. I believe this means that we’ve successfully met the terms of the Hancock Pact (or however pacts work)! It’s been nearly five years since that drive to NYC, wondering out loud if we could make it through this process. I’m so proud of you for holding up your end of the pact, and so grateful for your relentless support and encouragement as I’ve sought to hold up my own. Hancock Pact is forever, though. We were absolutely meant to be on this journey together, and you are forever embedded into the fabric of my life and my heart. Thank you for every walk and talk (in person or cross-country), for every life-giving adventure—from snagging wooden pallets to jumping out of a plane, for pushing me even without realizing you were, for your wisdom—in research and in life. I love you tons. SOFIA, MY FIFTH COMMITTEE MEMBER. This project doesn’t exist without you. I remember exactly where I was as I told you about this idea over the phone, feeling defeated and not wanting to propose one more dissertation idea. “What’s the worst that could happen?” you said, encouraging me to propose this “college athletes’ experiences of COVID” thing. This doesn’t even scratch the surface, though. You have become such a force in my life, and the last few years would have looked entirely different without you. Te quiero muchisimo (y, crees que alguien va leer más que esta página?). JAMIE. Thank you for being my home away from Morgantown. I don’t know if I would be at this point without you, letting me crash your Washington Heights apartment whenever I wanted (needed) during my first couple of years. Your love, care, and empathy are truly second to none, and I needed it more than ever every time I popped up in NYC—more than I even knew at the time. I am in love with every memory we’ve created there together. So many miles, so much food! I love you very much. V. In the midst of this project (and pandemic), you became my favorite distraction and most wonderful supporter (although, you’ve been that for over a decade). Thank you for all of the long talks, long drives, unplanned adventures, life perspective, and even your help with recruitment. You have supported this venture in so many different ways, directly and indirectly, and I add it to the long list of reasons why you’re my favorite person who was never actually my teacher. Love, Bonita Girl. ACUP. Thank you for your support throughout this journey. AC—a text, phone call, or seeing you on the East Coast was always grounding and felt like home at times when I felt unsettled and COLLEGE ATHLETES’ EXPERIENCES OF THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC vi very much not “at home.” UP—your genuine interest in my research, classes, and progress has always meant so much, because it takes a real kind and curious soul to listen to—let alone ask questions about—research and academics. And while I appreciate all of the ways that you both support me, backyard graduations may be the greatest. They have become my favorite events, and the thought and care that you’ve put into them over the years is unbelievable. If this project and this degree are worth finishing for any reason, it’s definitely the backyard grad! Can’t wait. Love you. GRAMS & GRAMPS. It has meant so much to have you witness some of the important parts of this multi-year process. It is one of the best feelings in the world to know I’ve made you proud, and while I know it doesn’t require a doctorate degree, I still hope you are proud of the work I’ve put into it. During my time in school, talking to you guys was always so encouraging. Our phone calls lifted my spirits whenever I wasn’t feeling great about my work or myself, and often reminded me that I was actually doing okay after all. That I was loved and that you were proud no matter what. Thank you for loving me so unconditionally. You’re the best grandparents anyone could ask for, I love you. THE ATHLETES. Last but possibly the most important, this study doesn’t exist without the college athletes who agreed to participate and share their stories. I cared about this project before starting the interview process, but I cared on such a deeper level after talking to each of these individuals. Their investment in the project fueled me to stay invested when the work felt tedious. Their willingness to share their experiences with me stoked my determination to present their collective story as accurately as possible, which made me a better researcher and made this a better dissertation. COLLEGE ATHLETES’ EXPERIENCES OF THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC vii Table of Contents A Qualitative Study of A Qualitative Study of College Athletes’ Experiences of the COVID-19 Pandemic .........................................................................................................................................1 Changes to College Sports due to COVID-19.............................................................................1 Extension of Athletic Eligibility..............................................................................................3 Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Athletes.........................................................................4 Changes to Sport Training.......................................................................................................4 Impact on Athletes’ Mental Health and Well-Being...............................................................6 Current Study...............................................................................................................................8 Methods...........................................................................................................................................9 Participants..................................................................................................................................9 Procedures .................................................................................................................................10 Data Analysis.........................................................................................................................11 Trustworthiness .....................................................................................................................12 Results ...........................................................................................................................................13 Typical Structure: Gone ............................................................................................................13 Competition Schedules Unknown, and Timelines for Return Became Moving Targets ......14 Athletes Removed from Typical Sport Environments During Mass Quarantine..................16 COVID-19 Safety Measures Implemented Upon Return to Sport........................................17 Team Dynamics Altered........................................................................................................19 Athletic Identity: Decentralized ................................................................................................21 More Time to Focus on Responsibilities and Life Outside of Sport.....................................22 Opportunity to Explore New Activities and Find New Purpose ...........................................23 New Choices: More Decisions..................................................................................................24 Managing Training During Quarantine .................................................................................24 Decisions About Future Due to Additional Year of Eligibility.............................................25 Discussion and Implications..........................................................................................................27 Limitations and Directions for Future Research ...........................................................................35 Conclusion.....................................................................................................................................36 Appendix A: Extended Literature Review ....................................................................................53 Overview of COVID-19 ............................................................................................................53 Disasters: Characteristics and Psychological Impact ................................................................54 Epidemics: Characteristics and Psychological Impact ..........................................................56 Disruptions to Sport Participation: Injuries, Forced Retirement, and Olympic Boycott...........60 COLLEGE ATHLETES’ EXPERIENCES OF THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC viii Athletes’ Experiences of Sport Injury ...................................................................................61 Athletes’ Experiences of Forced Retirement Due to Deselection or Team Elimination.......74 Changes to Competitive Sport in Response to COVID-19 .......................................................79 Professional Sports................................................................................................................79 Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Athletes.......................................................................95 Impact of Pandemic on Sport Training and Physical Activity ..............................................95 Athletes’ Initial Responses to Changes.................................................................................99 Impact of Pandemic on Mental Health and Well-Being......................................................101 Appendix B: Extended Methods .................................................................................................117 Ontology ..................................................................................................................................117 Epistemology...........................................................................................................................117 Positionality.............................................................................................................................118 COVID-19 Experience ........................................................................................................119 Experience as a College Athlete..........................................................................................122 Experience as a College Coach ...........................................................................................124 Methodology............................................................................................................................124 Participants..............................................................................................................................126 Sample Size .........................................................................................................................128 Procedures ...............................................................................................................................130 Data Collection....................................................................................................................131 Data Analysis...........................................................................................................................134 Research Question 1 ............................................................................................................134 Research Question 2 ............................................................................................................137 Trustworthiness ...................................................................................................................140 Appendix C: Extended Results and Discussion ..........................................................................143 Athletes’ Responses to COVID-19 .........................................................................................144 Comparisons Between Athletes’ Responses to COVID-19 and Sport Injury .........................148 Athlete’s Direct Comparisons Between Injury and COVID-19 Experiences .....................149 Comparison of Athletes’ Responses to COVID-19 and the Integrated Model of Sport Injury .............................................................................................................................................160 Conclusion...................................................................................................................................165 Appendix D: Brief Recruitment Message ...................................................................................167 Appendix E: Alignment of Research Questions and Interview Questions..................................168 Appendix F: Semi-Structured Interview Guide...........................................................................169 Appendix G: Tables and Figures.................................................................................................171 COLLEGE ATHLETES’ EXPERIENCES OF THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC ix Appendix H: Reflexive Journal...................................................................................................180 Appendix I: Extended References...............................................................................................197 COLLEGE ATHLETES’ EXPERIENCES OF THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC 1 A Qualitative Study of College Athletes’ Experiences of the COVID-19 Pandemic On January 30, 2020, the World Health Organization declared the outbreak of the novel coronavirus (COVID-19) a public health emergency of international concern. As a result, systems within the United States were altered to an unimaginable degree—including collegiate sports. As institutions of higher education rapidly transitioned to online learning and eliminated in-person engagements in the spring of 2020, and professional sports leagues immediately shut down, the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) followed a similar trajectory by shutting down all athletic activities because of the quickly growing pandemic. Changes to College Sports due to COVID-19 Prior to making any system-wide changes or cancellations, the NCAA formed the COVID-19 Advisory Panel in March 2020. This panel consisted of NCAA chief medical officer Dr. Brian Hainline, seven experts from the fields of medicine, public health, and security, and four former or current student-athletes. In early March, the advisory panel suggested that athletic events not be cancelled; however, within two weeks this perspective changed as COVID-19 cases and deaths increased rapidly throughout the country. On March 19th, the NCAA cancelled all upcoming winter 2019-2020 and spring 2020 sport championships—including the highlyprofitable NCAA men’s and women’s basketball tournaments (Hale, 2020). By cancelling all remaining championships, all sports were rendered out-of-season for the remainder of the 2019- 2020 academic year. Further, due to social distancing measures and moratoriums on group gatherings, athletes could not partake in supervised physical workouts (National Collegiate Athletic Association, 2019). As a result, Division I athletes were only allowed to participate in up to eight hours per week of “virtual nonphysical countable athletically related activities” for the remainder of the season (National Collegiate Athletic Association, 2020a). Many collegiate COLLEGE ATHLETES’ EXPERIENCES OF THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC 2 athletes had relocated to live with family members at this point, as all academic and athletic commitments were occurring virtually (National Collegiate Athletic Association, 2020c; Petrie et al., 2020). Transitioning into the summer of 2020, college sports remained inactive in regard to inperson interactions as colleges and universities remained closed to students and courses continued to be administered online. However, on May 20th, the NCAA voted to allow all Division I athletes and coaches to voluntarily return to their campuses for in-person athletic activities beginning June 1, 2020 (Hosick, 2020b). Although the NCAA provided continuallyupdated recommendations and a checklist for athletic programs regarding resocialization (National Collegiate Athletic Association, n.d.; National Collegiate Athletic Association, 2020a), discretion was ultimately left to each school to determine how they would manage the process (e.g., access to on-campus facilities, group size, measures taken to limit spread of the virus) based upon state and local regulations (Hosick, 2020a). While all in-person athletic activity was voluntary at this time, the NCAA eventually allowed for the implementation of mandatory practice and training once again—beginning with football and basketball (men’s and women’s) in July 2020. However, at this time it remained unclear whether upcoming collegiate sport seasons would take place at all due to the ongoing pandemic and the associated safety concerns. While the continual spread of the COVID-19 virus remained a concern, some professional sports organizations made logistical modifications to hold competitions by late summer (Axisa & Anderson, 2020; Reynolds, 2020; Gregory, 2020). However, as the fall season approached for collegiate sports, athletic conferences began to reduce the number of competitions that would take place or cancelled seasons entirely (The Ivy League, 2020; Kilgore, 2020). The NCAA eventually followed suit and in August cancelled fall championships, although member schools COLLEGE ATHLETES’ EXPERIENCES OF THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC 3 who chose to engage in athletic competitions could still do so (National Collegiate Athletic Association, 2020b). Entering the fall of 2020 and continuing into the following spring, pandemic-related restrictions began to ease a bit as evidenced by some American colleges and universities returning to in-person or hybrid instruction (C2i Dashboard, n.d.). Early in the fall, the NCAA rescheduled fall sport championships to take place in the spring of 2021 rather than cancelling them altogether (DI Council approves changes to FCS championship, n.d.; Johnson, 2020). For fall sports (all but Football Bowl Subdivision [FBS] teams), the offseason and competition season were flipped because of this decision. However, the NCAA Division I FBS—the top level of college football, made up of 10 athletic conferences—operates separately from the NCAA. Therefore, each member conference independently determined whether they would move forward with a football season in fall 2020. This decision had major financial implications, as FBS teams generate a reported 48% to 64% of the income for Power Five athletic departments each year (Dochterman, 2020). Ultimately, FBS conferences held shortened football seasons that started later than usual in the fall; most played conference-only games to reduce travel and contact between athletes. Despite efforts to protect against the virus, over the course of the season 139 games were canceled or postponed due to COVID-19 outbreaks (Cobb et al., 2020). Extension of Athletic Eligibility As a result of cancelled championships and heavily modified seasons, the NCAA granted an additional year of athletic eligibility to athletes who were eligible to compete in spring 2020, fall 2020, or winter 2020-2021. However, this extension was not granted to winter sport athletes who competed in the 2019-2020 season because although some of their championships were COLLEGE ATHLETES’ EXPERIENCES OF THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC 4 canceled due to the pandemic, they all still completed most of the season prior to the pandemic. Despite the NCAA’s approved extensions, member schools were not required to honor this, nor were they required to provide the same amount of financial aid that athletes had been receiving previously. Multiple universities opted not to honor the eligibility extension (Pickman, 2020; West, 2020), and due to a major reduction in NCAA revenue distribution to its member schools in 2020, reductions in financial aid have manifested in fewer athletic scholarships available for incoming freshmen (Ngo, 2020; Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, 2021). Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Athletes The changes that have resulted from the COVID-19 pandemic have affected athletes physically, psychologically, and emotionally. The period of mass quarantine—during which Americans were expected to maintain social distance by staying primarily in their households— has been described as a “critical pause” for athletes in which their lives came to a standstill and they made temporary changes as they waited for their lives to “return to normal” (WhitcombKhan et al., 2021). For elite athletes, this period was commonly laden with a sense of loss: loss of sport training, physical conditioning, athletic identity, motivation to engage with daily activities, consistent routine, and support (emotional, technical and social; Gupta & McCarthy, 2021; Whitcomb-Khan et al., 2021). Further, the “relatively aimless” nature of this mass quarantine was highly incongruent with elite athletes’ typical structured environments and schedules (Gupta & McCarthy, 2021). Athletes also experienced uncertainty about their athletic careers, unclear when or if they would compete again as their return to sport was so dependent on the ever-changing landscape of the pandemic (Whitcomb-Khan et al., 2021). Changes to Sport Training COLLEGE ATHLETES’ EXPERIENCES OF THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC 5 One change brought about by the COVID-19 pandemic was the alteration of athletes’ sport training and engagement in physical activity. In the first months of the pandemic most Division I athletes reportedly engaged in regular vigorous activity—many for more than an hour per day (Petrie et al., 2020). However, very few were able to maintain the training routines they had prior to mass quarantine, and training frequency and time dropped considerably (Bowes et al., 2020; Izzicupo et al., 2021; Jagim et al., 2020). While athletes spent less time than usual engaging in strength and conditioning, mobility, and flexibility training, the greatest reduction was seen in sport-specific training as athletes reported a 6.5-hour reduction per week in this area (Jagim et al., 2020). The impact that the pandemic had on athletes’ sport training is attributable to various logistical factors, as well as emotional, psychological, and motivational changes. A lack of access to training facilities contributed to the reported decline in collegiate athletes’ training regimen. Local regulations, facility closures, and lack of access to necessary resources were by far the greatest barriers to training cited by Division I athletes (Petrie et al., 2020). Athletes did not have access to their college or university training facilities because they relocated and/or the facilities closed due to the pandemic, and local safety regulations led gyms and training facilities to close their doors for varying stretches of time. As a result, many athletes did not have access to the equipment necessary to engage in or maximize their training. Another barrier to training was the lack of access that athletes had to coaches (in-person or virtually, National Collegiate Athletic Association, 2020b). Although many athletes received virtual support from their sport coaches and strength and conditioning coaches while they trained independently, it is likely that the amount of contact and programming varied between coaches (Jagim et al., 2020; Peña et al., 2021) as did access to appropriate training facilities/equipment. COLLEGE ATHLETES’ EXPERIENCES OF THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC 6 Athletes’ training regimens and levels of physical activity during the COVID-19 pandemic also appeared to be influenced by internal, individual factors. Challenging emotions seemed to limit the extent to which athletes engaged in training during the pandemic, as Division I athletes cited fear of exposure to the virus, stress or anxiety, and sadness or depression as barriers to training (National Collegiate Athletic Association, 2020c; Petrie et al., 2020). While not assessed directly, in many cases these emotional responses were likely driven by cognitive appraisals about the severity, danger, and impact of the virus—an important psychological component that may have ultimately impacted athletes’ training as well. Finally, training motivation changed for athletes during the mass quarantine. Specifically, motivation to train for sport reportedly decreased (Jagim et al., 2020), and athletes became more inclined to train to avoid physical regression rather than to strive for improvement as was more common prior to the pandemic (Mascret, 2020). Impact on Athletes’ Mental Health and Well-Being In the initial months of the COVID-19 pandemic, collegiate athletes reported mental health concerns at rates 1.5 to 2.5 times higher than usual (National Collegiate Athletic Association, 2020c). Division I athletes’ reported experiences included depression (26% reporting clinical levels), anxiety, psychological distress, feeling overwhelmed, difficulty sleeping, mental exhaustion, loneliness, hopelessness, and anger (National Collegiate Athletic Association, 2020c; Petrie et al., 2020). Despite these challenges, there was a nine percent reduction in the number of college athletes who continued to receive mental health counseling after the onset of the pandemic, per athlete reports (Petrie et al., 2020). Similar challenges appeared to plague athletes who had been preparing for the 2020 Olympics in Tokyo, as the pandemic-related changes left them “puzzled” and stressed (Schinke et al., 2020). The Olympic COLLEGE ATHLETES’ EXPERIENCES OF THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC 7 hopefuls described experiencing decreased sleep and appetite, increased rumination and loneliness, and fear that they might lose the opportunity to compete in the Olympics altogether. As mass quarantine continued and sports remained shut down, athletes all over the world had a range of experiences regarding their mental health and well-being. Some studies demonstrated increases in depression, anxiety, and insomnia among athlete populations because of the pandemic and related concerns (e.g., worry about finances; Pensgaard et al., 2021; Roberts & Lane, 2021). Other studies did not support this, as athletes showed “relatively low,” nonpathological levels of stress, anxiety, and depressive symptoms—a pattern possibly attributable to elite athletes’ experiences coping with competition-related anxiety and developing cognitive coping resources as a result (Clemente-Suarez et al., 2020; Leguizamo et al., 2020). When asked directly, some student-athletes expressed that their experiences as athletes had prepared them to manage their time, maintain motivation, and remain disciplined during the pandemic. Others felt that there was no advantage, as being an athlete did not make them different from other people and in some ways being an athlete may have been more difficult because of the demands that come with this role (Izzicupo et al., 2021). Finally, athletes’ mental health and well-being during the COVID-19 pandemic differed based on personal characteristics. For instance, the pandemic appeared to have a greater negative impact on female athletes, as they reportedly experienced more stress and anxiety, fear of the virus, and psychological decline, along with lower levels of perceived control in their lives compared to male athletes (Bowes et al., 2020; di Fronso et al., 2020; Håkansson et al., 2020; Kaçoğlu et al., 2021; Pons et al., 2020; Ruffault et al., 2020). Further, more seasoned athletes and those competing at higher levels were less impacted than those with less experience or competing at lower levels (Pensgaard et al., 2021; González-Hernández et al., 2021; Kaçoğlu et COLLEGE ATHLETES’ EXPERIENCES OF THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC 8 al., 2021). This may be due to high-level athletes having access to more resources and support from coaches and mental health practitioners (Pensgaard et al., 2021), and increased sport experience may have helped athletes build the capacity to cope with challenges. Although athletes competing at higher levels expressed less general distress during the pandemic, they reportedly experienced more anxiety about returning to sport (Ruffault et al., 2020). Team sport athletes generally reported less distress during the pandemic compared to individual sport athletes, possibly as a result of having a built-in support system, more contact with team members, and less pressure to perform well immediately upon return to sport as the responsibility to perform is distributed across team members (di Cagno et al., 2020; Uroh & Adewumni, 2021). Finally, the extent to which individuals identified as athletes appeared to play a role in mental health and well-being during the COVID-19 pandemic, although findings were mixed. In one study, a stronger athletic identity was associated with greater tendencies to ruminate and catastrophize during the pandemic (Costa et al., 2020). A strong athletic identity may lead to greater concerns about sport training, and discomfort when away from one’s sport for a prolonged period. However, in another study athletic identity was associated with less psychological distress during the pandemic (Costa et al., 2020; Uroh & Adewunmi, 2021); the authors explained that intentionally increasing one’s athletic identity may serve as a protective factor against distress. Current Study The major logistical changes to college sports over the course of the COVID-19 pandemic have altered collegiate athletes’ lives in various ways. This population is unique as they are young adults who typically operate in highly structured, physically and psychologically demanding, competitive environments. The experience of the COVID-19 pandemic— COLLEGE ATHLETES’ EXPERIENCES OF THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC 9 particularly during mass quarantine—forced many collegiate athletes into “relatively aimless” lifestyles that in many cases were vastly different than what they were used to. To understand the significance and impact of the systemic changes to college sports, it is valuable to gain a nuanced understanding of collegiate athletes’ lived experiences and reflections of the pandemic relative to their athletic careers. The purpose of this study was to develop an understanding of Division I collegiate athletes experiences of the pause in college sports that resulted from the COVID-19 pandemic. Methods The primary researcher’s philosophical perspective heavily informed the hermeneutic phenomenological approach taken to address the research questions in this study. Ontologically, the researcher maintains the idealist perspective that while there are experiences which humans seemingly share with one another, each person has different perceptions and meanings associated with each phenomenon (Sale et al., 2002). Epistemologically, the researcher believes that the truth can only be known through each individual’s personal interpretations and those of others (Guba & Lincoln, 1994). Based on these philosophical underpinnings, a hermeneutic phenomenological approach was taken to effectively explore individuals’ lived experiences through their own interpretations while also acknowledging the role of the researcher’s perspective and existing biases (Heidegger, 1927). Specifically, the researcher acknowledges her experience as a former Division I collegiate athlete and strength and conditioning graduate assistant, which provided valuable understanding of Division I athletics while also contributing to existing biases. The researcher also acknowledges her personal experiences during the COVID-19 pandemic. Participants COLLEGE ATHLETES’ EXPERIENCES OF THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC 10 Participants in this study were 11 Division I collegiate student-athletes from various institutions and athletic conferences across the United States. The researcher employed a demographic variation approach (Sandelowski, 1995) to include a near-equal number of male and female athletes, with varied racial backgrounds and class standings. Athletes were also recruited from a range of sports to capture experiences that varied based on sport culture and the likelihood that an athlete would be able to continue their career in their respective sport at a professional level. To be eligible to participate in the current study, the athletes had to (a) be at least eighteen years old, (b) be part of a team whose athletic season had been impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic (winter and spring sports during the 2019-2020 season, fall sports during the 2020-2021 season), and (c) have remaining athletic eligibility and expect to return to play for their current team in the following season. Participant demographics can be found in Table 1. Table 1 Participant Demographics Participant (Pseudonym) Gender Sport Age Race Academic standing (2020-2021) Bryce Male Soccer 22 White Senior Daphne Female Soccer 20 Asian Junior Luka Male Soccer 22 White Senior Toby Male Cross Country 24 Hispanic Master’s Devon Male Football 21 Black Junior Paris Female Track 22 Black Master’s Megan Female Volleyball 21 White Master’s Taylor Female Softball 20 White Junior Sophia Female Softball 19 White Freshman Emma Female Soccer 22 White Senior Keoni Male Baseball 20 Hispanic Junior Procedures Athletes were recruited using both purposive and snowball sampling, and data was collected through individual interviews. By conducting semi-structured interviews, the COLLEGE ATHLETES’ EXPERIENCES OF THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC 11 researcher aimed to understand each participant’s experience of the pause in college sports due to the pandemic, and the impact on their lives that they experienced as a result. A participantdriven interview dynamic was established by asking the broad, open-ended question, “Can you talk about how the COVID-19 pandemic has affected your life relative to your sports participation?” (Englander, 2012; Vandermause & Fleming, 2011). Follow up questions were then asked based on the interviewees’ particular responses. Interviews took place virtually via Zoom to securely record and store the video meetings (Zoom Video Communications Inc., 2020). Prior to starting the interview, each participant was reminded that the interview would be recorded, and that only the primary researcher and possibly a transcriber would have access to the audio. Trustworthy phenomenological research is dependent on sampling adequacy, or the researcher’s assessment of the extent to which all evident and knowable experiences of the phenomenon being studied have been accounted for (Bowen, 2008; Morse et al., 2002; van Manen et al., 2016). The researcher assessed that after conducting 11 interviews, common experiences had been clearly established as re-occurring patterns were emerging from the athletes’ responses. While variations in experiences/patterns continually emerged as a result of individual and situational differences, general patterns appeared to the extent that the researcher determined Division I collegiate athletes’ experiences during COVID-19 had been accounted for. Therefore, the researcher terminated data collection after conducting 11 interviews. Data Analysis Interviews were analyzed by a research team of three coders with backgrounds in sport, exercise, and performance psychology. The coders conducted a thematic analysis, following Braun and Clarke’s (2006) 14-step model. The coders first read the entire data set independently COLLEGE ATHLETES’ EXPERIENCES OF THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC 12 to familiarize themselves with the data before independently coding the interviews. A datadriven approach was taken during the coding process to allow codes to emerge naturally from the interviews, without conscious influence from existing theories, models, or research. Upon establishing a list of agreed-upon codes, the coders collapsed them into potential themes—first independently, and then through collaborative discussion. They then engaged in multiple rounds of individual analysis and collaborative meetings to define and refine the primary themes, identify subthemes, and develop a thematic map to serve as a visual representation of the findings. Through this iterative process, the coders identified three primary themes that captured athletes’ experiences of the COVID-19 pandemic, and the impact that the pandemic had on their lives relative to their athletic endeavors. Trustworthiness Various steps were taken throughout the data collection and analysis process to ensure trustworthiness of the data (Elo et al., 2014). First, the establishment of a research team allowed for multiple perspectives and unique interpretations of the data. Second, the research team carefully followed Braun and Clarke’s well-cited outline of thematic analysis (2006) to ensure a thorough and credible analysis of the data. Third, each member of the research team engaged in reflexive journaling throughout the analysis process to document decisions, rationales, and their own reflections to maintain an audit trail (Nowell et al., 2017). Fourth, direct quotes from participants have been included in the results to ensure that the information is being presented accurately (Wadey et al., 2012). Finally, participants in the current study were each sent a copy of their respective interview transcripts to review and provide any feedback or changes if they desired (none had feedback or requested changes). Upon completion of the study, participants COLLEGE ATHLETES’ EXPERIENCES OF THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC 13 also received a copy of the aggregated results to review, though none responded with further feedback. Results The 11 participating Division I athletes were interviewed between October 20 and December 5, 2020. During this time, the athletes had all resumed training for their sports with their respective teams and schools, but with many COVID-19 safety measures in place. Some athletes were facing unknowns about their impending sport schedules, sometimes unsure if the upcoming season was going to be cancelled or not. Other athletes had recently (at the time of the interview) completed seasons that had been modified due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The athletes’ responses provided a comprehensive story of what their lives had been like from the beginning of the pandemic until the time of their respective interviews. Based on their accounts, three primary themes capture how the COVID-19 pandemic affected their lives relative to their sport participation: (a) Typical Structure: Gone, (b) Athletic Identity: Decentralized, and (c) New Choices: More Decisions. A visual representation of themes and subthemes can be found in Figure 1. Typical Structure: Gone Division I collegiate athletes typically operate within a very structured system. Each sport has a clearly defined primary season, competitions are scheduled well in advance, and the competition schedule is published in advance of the season starting. Day-to-day, Division I athletes tend to have heavily scheduled lives during the school year that create a lot of structure, including scheduled practices, strength and conditioning sessions, time in the training room for recovery and treatment, tutoring and/or study hall, team meetings, and community events. However, the structure that athletes become accustomed to was absent during the pandemic. The COLLEGE ATHLETES’ EXPERIENCES OF THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC 14 loss of structure has been broken into four subthemes: (a) competition schedules unknown, and timelines for return became moving targets, (b) athletes removed from typical sport environments during mass quarantine, (c) COVID-19 safety measures implemented upon return to sport, and (d) team dynamics altered. Figure 1 Thematic Map of Athletes’ Experiences During the COVID-19 Pandemic Competition Schedules Unknown, and Timelines for Return Became Moving Targets A major change in the typical structure of athletes’ lives was the uncertainty surrounding future competition schedules and seasons. As the pandemic continued, sport seasons were not only cancelled but postponed with no clear or definitive dates for return. Many times, athletes were given a return date only to have that date postponed further as the pandemic continued: Typical Structure: Gone. Schedules and timelines for return became moving targets. Removed from typical sport environment during quarantine. COVID-19 safety measures implemented upon return to sport. Team dynamics altered. New Choices: More Decisions. Managing training during quarantine. Decisions about future due to additional year of eligibility. Athletic Identity: Decentralized. More time to focus on responsibilities and life outside of sport. Opportunity to explore new activities and find new purpose. COLLEGE ATHLETES’ EXPERIENCES OF THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC 15 …it just kinda kept being like, one week, they were like, “Yeah, we’re gonna start next week,” and then we would get to like the night before and they’re like, “Nope, gotta wait another week.” (Emma, soccer) The lack of a definitive return date made it difficult for the athletes to plan and prepare for their return to campus and sport training: It was a little odd because we didn’t really know when we were gonna be allowed back, like it was constantly changing like, “Okay, we wanna try to get you back June 1st.” And then it was like, “We can’t get you back June 1st, we’re gonna try June 8th.” And then it kinda just kept getting pushed back and…I’m very organized and I like to have a plan and stuff, and so it was like a little hard for me to be like, “Okay, what are we doing? I kinda wanna know what's going on.” (Megan, volleyball) All the athletes returned to training on campus with their teams by the end of summer 2020. However, the start dates for fall sport seasons were often moving targets, and some fall sport athletes were training without any confirmation that there would be a season at all: …at some point it looked like there’s no chance for playing, then at some point it looked like we’re definitely gonna play again, we’re all getting ready, and then it got closed again because the cases would rise again. So I think it was just an up and down, up and down. (Luka, soccer) Spring sport athletes were months away from their typical season start dates, but were still plagued with the unknown of whether there would be a season or not: We don’t know if we’re gonna like have a first game of the season or what we’re gonna do, but yeah, if the spring goes as planned, I guess they’ll roll our schedule out here pretty quick, but everything is super undetermined… (Sophia, softball) COLLEGE ATHLETES’ EXPERIENCES OF THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC 16 As a result, some spring sport athletes seemed to have less confidence in the value of their offseason training, questioning whether there would be a season to justify their training: Now today, we’re at this kind of awkward place of, “Are we even practicing for a reason? Are we gonna have a season? Do we even have track meets lined up?” (Paris, track) Athletes Removed from Typical Sport Environments During Mass Quarantine Collegiate athletes were not in their typical training environments for many months during mass quarantine. Many moved away from campus to live with family during this time, while others remained in their housing near school but nevertheless remained isolated without inperson access to facilities, coaches, teammates, and other support staff. Many of the athletes noted that they were less motivated to train on their own, away from their teammates, coaches, and typical competitive environments: Yeah, I mean, [home is] definitely a different environment, I think, compared to, if we were to be able to be as a team and train together, like I’m working that much harder, I’m motivated more. Like, for me and like a lot of people in athletics…[we] have such a competitive mindset, and it’s really different to be competitive with yourself, compared to competitive to someone else. (Emma, soccer) However, some athletes had access to training equipment (e.g., batting cage, weights) and/or other people to train with from the very start of mass quarantine, even when facilities were closed. For these athletes, removal from their typical environments and structured schedules seemed to facilitate training: …but not like playing, like softball at that time and not going to school, like I was able to… really focus on like my game. Like I would go and throw every day and like just be really focused on workouts, so like, I like that aspect that I was like kind of being COLLEGE ATHLETES’ EXPERIENCES OF THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC 17 independent, like not having to go to school and not having that like strict schedule. (Sophia, softball) COVID-19 Safety Measures Implemented Upon Return to Sport As collegiate athletes returned to campuses and resumed sport training, their schools and athletic departments had implemented safety protocols to reduce the spread of the COVID-19 virus. Specific safety protocols seemed to vary between athletic departments and depended somewhat on the nature of the sport (e.g., outdoor versus indoor, close contact versus spread out). Safety measures were put in place that became part of the athletes’ regular procedures, interfering with their typical structure and routine: Everyday we’d show up to the front of like, our athletic building. They’d take our temperature, give us a wristband if you passed your temperature [check]. Every morning, 30 minutes prior to showing up to any facility, we had to fill out a thing called a daily wellness, uh quiz. (Keoni, baseball) Although teams sometimes shortened their practices as part of their response to COVID-19, the athletes also had to take more time as they intentionally adhered to the COVID-19 safety requirements. One athlete highlighted the additional planning and preparation that it required to go to the training room for treatment: We always had to do extra sign-up sheets, or like text before if we wanted to get treatments…like they had to be prepared, and like if…they don’t know ahead of time…then like you’re not gonna get the treatment that you need, so like...we have to be like super on top of like our schedules and stuff. (Sophia, softball) COLLEGE ATHLETES’ EXPERIENCES OF THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC 18 Many of the athletes were required to quarantine upon return to campus and before they could return to team practice, and some had to quarantine due to contact tracing and the spread of COVID-19 among groups of athletes: Then in July, we ended up having to go into a third week of quarantine because the athletic department as a whole... I’m not gonna name names of teams, but one team was already practicing, had major issues, and so we got completely shut down, so we had to go into a third week of quarantine… (Megan, volleyball) Further, athletes had grown accustomed to practicing as a team or training in particular organized groups prior to the pandemic. This structure changed upon their return to training, as many teams were initially separated into smaller training groups to prevent potential team-wide outbreaks of the COVID-19 virus. Over time—usually the course of a few weeks—practices and training sessions shifted toward what was considered “normal,” as teams progressively practiced in bigger groups or as a whole once again: Their plan at first was to keep each group, you know, with each other, and then you know after you get tested and everybody’s positive, “Okay, now we know that nobody in each group had one single person that was infected.” So now we can come [together] collectively, but for the meantime, our meetings were just running backs, just quarterbacks, just you know, not collectively offense… We…transitioned into a team play, and then we [transitioned] into contact as we continued to get tested and found negative results. (Devon, football) Beyond initially practicing in small groups, additional safety protocols were implemented during practices and strength and conditioning sessions that went against the typical structure athletes were used to in their training environments. In some cases, this even altered the way they COLLEGE ATHLETES’ EXPERIENCES OF THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC 19 experienced their sport. Athletes were required to wear masks at certain times during training (this varied between teams and sometimes between positions), physically distance from others, and make adjustments to ensure equipment was sanitary or sanitized: …at first, we couldn’t touch the baseball with our hands. So we’d catch it with our glove, run to the bucket, drop the ball, like, with your glove, and if you did touch it, our trainers, like uh, player trainers. They would have to like sanitize the ball and like wipe it down with a towel and like…There [were] a lot of rules. (Keoni, baseball) Finally, some of the athletes expressed negative perceptions of the impact that COVID-19 safety measures had on the vibe during training sessions. One athlete discussed the impact of his team being divided into smaller groups: For us to not necessarily see our complete team on the field, for us to not see our complete team working out, it’s a total change of scenery and it kinda like, lowers the tension as far as the excitement, as far as the intensity when it comes to working out, because you don’t get to see, you know, the big groups, everybody pumped and everything. So everything…has been like watered down because of it. (Devon, football) Team Dynamics Altered Athletes experienced changes in their interactions with teammates both due to physical separation during mass quarantine, and because of the altered circumstances they experienced upon return to training. During mass quarantine, the athletes’ interactions with teammates and coaches took place through various mediums (e.g., text messaging, phone calls, virtually playing video games, Zoom meetings, in-person) and varied in frequency. Interactions were formal (e.g., team meetings) or informal (e.g., teammates texting as friends). Once the typical structure was COLLEGE ATHLETES’ EXPERIENCES OF THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC 20 removed, team dynamics that existed prior to the pandemic—relationships between teammates, athletes’ perspectives of coaches—appeared to be magnified during the mass quarantine: The team, we talked, like the players, ‘cause we all play video games together. We all talk on the phone together. Play games on our phone together, like we all are good friends. (Keoni, baseball) The following athlete expressed that she “thought about transferring” at many points during the pandemic “because of the lack of [her] coaches and [her] team doing anything…as a team”: In the beginning, our coaches would call. Like, one of our coaches would call every couple weeks just to check in, see how our families were doing, how we’re doing…I think that was maybe, they only did it for maybe a month, month and a half. They tried. They’re not the best but, they tried. Our team definitely lacks in that aspect of coachplayer relationship… (Daphne, softball) Once athletes returned to in-person training, athletic departments and coaching staff largely expected them to remain in a social “bubble” that only consisted of their teammates to prevent a COVID-19 infection from an outside source. Many suggested that this limitation led them to spend more time with their teammates than usual, which created a unique bonding experience: So almost feels like we’re more, more together now, like in the day, then we would be normally in a fall season because in the fall season, I feel, I feel like we would have a morning practice, we’