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'Deporte y Cambio Social': Women's Empowerment SDP Program 'Deporte y Cambio Social': Women's Empowerment SDP Program in Mexico Sofia Espana Perez West Virginia University, se0015@mix.wvu.edu Follow this and additional works at: https://researchrepository.wvu.edu/etd Part of the Sports Studies Commons Recommended Citation Espana Perez, Sofia, "'Deporte y Cambio Social': Women's Empowerment SDP Program in Mexico" (2021). Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports. 8091. https://researchrepository.wvu.edu/etd/8091 This Dissertation is protected by copyright and/or related rights. It has been brought to you by the The Research Repository @ WVU with permission from the rights-holder(s). You are free to use this Dissertation in any way that is permitted by the copyright and related rights legislation that applies to your use. For other uses you must obtain permission from the rights-holder(s) directly, unless additional rights are indicated by a Creative Commons license in the record and/ or on the work itself. This Dissertation has been accepted for inclusion in WVU Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports collection by an authorized administrator of The Research Repository @ WVU. For more information, please contact researchrepository@mail.wvu.edu. ‘Deporte y Cambio Social’: Women’s Empowerment SDP program in Mexico Sofía España Pérez Dissertation Submitted to the College of Physical Activity and Sport Sciences at West Virginia University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology Jack C. Watson, II, Ph. D., Chair Cheyenne Luzynski, Ph.D. Samuel Zizzi, Ed. D. Scott Barnicle, Ph.D. Department of Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology Morgantown, West Virginia 2021 Keywords: Sport for development, women’s empowerment, women in Mexico Copyright 2021 Sofía España Pérez Abstract ‘Deporte y Cambio Social’: Women’s Empowerment SDP program in Mexico Sofia España Pérez Mexico is ranked as the second lowest country in the world in labor force participation, and income and wage disparities specific to women (Gender Gap Report, 2019). “Deporte y Cambio Social” was a train-the-trainer sport-based program grounded in the Social Change Model (SCM; HERI, 1996) that used soccer as a vehicle to explore women empowerment and leadership development in Mexico. Three semi-structured focus group interviews were conducted with 18 Mexican women (n = 10) and men (n = 8; Mage = 23) coaches who completed the program. Using a social constructivist framework, reflexive thematic analysis was used to examine the data. Participants reported that their perceptions of leadership and gender changed, and they identified SCM-related and non SCM-related values as program outcomes alongside increasing their knowledge and desire to create social change for Mexican women. The utility of the SCM within the sport context is under explored and provides opportunity for further research. Future programming should focus on increasing community members’ awareness of deeply ingrained gender stereotypes and leadership inequalities. iii Table of Contents ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS V INTRODUCTION 1 PROGRAMS TO ADDRESS GENDER INEQUALITY IN MEXICO 2 MEXICAN WOMEN AND SPORT 3 WOMEN’S EMPOWERMENT THROUGH SPORT 3 SPORT FOR DEVELOPMENT AND PEACE 4 GROUNDING FRAMEWORK - SOCIAL CHANGE MODEL 6 PURPOSES 7 RESEARCH QUESTIONS 8 METHODS 8 POSITIONALITY 9 PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT AND DESCRIPTION 10 SETTING 10 SAMPLE AND RECRUITMENT 10 INSTRUMENT AND INTERVIEWS 11 DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURES 11 DATA ANALYSIS 12 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 14 1) WHAT WERE THE EXPERIENCES OF A SUB-SAMPLE OF COACHES WHO TOOK PART IN THE ‘DEPORTE Y CAMBIO SOCIAL’ PROGRAM? 14 PROGRAM FORMAT 14 OUTCOMES OF THE PROGRAM 18 PROGRAM SUGGESTIONS 23 2) AS A RESULT OF PARTICIPATION IN THE PROGRAM, HOW DID PERCEPTIONS OF LEADERSHIP CHANGE, IF AT ALL? 24 LEADERSHIP IS MULTIFACETED 24 3) AS A RESULT OF PARTICIPATION IN THE PROGRAM, HOW DID PERCEPTIONS OF GENDER (IN RELATION TO THEIR ROLE AS SPORT EDUCATORS/COACHES) CHANGE, IF AT ALL? 31 GENDERED PERCEPTIONS OF LEADERSHIP IN MEXICO 31 CHANGE IN GENDERED PERCEPTIONS AFTER THE PROGRAM 37 4) HOW EFFECTIVE WAS THE SCM AS A MODEL TO GROUND THE ‘DEPORTE Y CAMBIO SOCIAL’ PROGRAM? 40 INDIVIDUAL VALUES 41 GROUP VALUES 44 SOCIETAL VALUES 47 PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS 49 LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS 51 REFERENCES 53 TABLES 69 TABLE 1 69 TABLE 2 70 TABLE 3 71 TABLE 4 72 iv APPENDICES 74 APPENDIX A 74 EXTENDED LITERATURE REVIEW 74 GENDER INEQUALITY GLOBALLY 76 GENDER INEQUALITY IN MEXICO 80 MEXICAN WOMEN AND CULTURAL MODES OF EMPOWERMENT 82 MEXICAN WOMEN AND SPORT 85 WOMEN’S EMPOWERMENT PROGRAMS IN MEXICO 87 WOMEN’S EMPOWERMENT THROUGH SPORT 91 SPORT FOR DEVELOPMENT AND PEACE 93 SDP PROGRAM CONSIDERATIONS 98 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK - SOCIAL CHANGE MODEL 105 CURRENT PROGRAM 110 APPENDIX B 112 EXTENDED METHODS 112 SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVIST 112 POSITIONALITY 113 PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT 114 PROGRAM DESCRIPTION 115 SETTING 116 SAMPLE AND RECRUITMENT 116 INSTRUMENT 117 DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURES 118 DATA ANALYSIS 119 TRUSTWORTHINESS 121 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY 122 REFERENCES 124 APPENDIX C 140 FOCUS GROUPS PROTOCOL: 140 APPENDIX D 141 PROTOCOLO DE GRUPOS FOCALES 141 Acknowledgements v Dr. Watson: Thank you for giving me the opportunity to be here today. Thank you for your unwavering support, limitless availability and incredible patience! I wouldn't be here without you! Dr. Luzynski: Cheyenne, In you I found not only an incredible committee member, but also a woman who has characteristics that I hope I can acquire one day. The love, passion and dedication that you gave not only to this project but also to me and my learning, are invaluable. Thank you for your mentorship, your unconditional support, and your way of being. I am truly grateful and honored to have had the opportunity to experience this adventure with you!! Dr. Barnicle: I want to also thank you for giving me the opportunity to be here today, and for choosing me as your first advisee! Thank you for always being there for me, you always made me feel that I was important and that my voice was heard! Dr.Zizzi: Your immense research knowledge and passion to share it, was what guided me through some of the toughest parts of the mountain! Thank you for that and for showing me the human side of academia, I’ll take that with me! Dr. Milam: Sarah, in and out of Carruth, I always felt very supported by you. You are the best definition of a supervisor. Thanks for helping me through some of my toughest moments (with clients and in my personal life), I'll never forget how supported you made me feel. Participants of ‘Deporte y Cambio Social’ program: This program was possible thanks to you! Gracias por confiar en nosotros y por las buenas relaciones que creamos! Adam and Andrea…. What an adventure… coding meeting after coding meeting, all sorts of feelings were bounced around… however, the only one left in me is one of gratitude for both of you. Thanks for teaching me how to enjoy the research process, I owe that to both of you! To all my people in Morgantown, my SEPP family: Thank you! Carra: my first source of support y alegria in Morgantown. So many memories, thanks for being in this adventure with me. I couldn't have done it without you! Matt: Wow… what a ride has been…It's almost done… (for me)! Haha. I could not have asked for a better cohort mate! I love you deeply! Spencer: I could have never asked for a better mentor! Spence you were there for me every step of the way (i.e. triathlon training, 6am training sessions, research talk, running stats together/ for me, road trips through the country roads, some amazing food…!) Can’t thank you enough!! Karly: You are a golden one! Thank you for always being up to help, listen and smile, I value you immensely. Ali: We are now connected in a unique way! Thanks for letting me into your life! My mentees: You two have marked my way... I will miss our family dinners!! Tommy: So glad that our paths crossed, thanks for showing me your kindness, sensitivity and huge heart! Luna: Where to start… thank you for being a source of unconditional support and inspiration. Bombastic! Killeen: Buenas! Simply put, there is no one like you, my colleague!! Your sense of humor and infinite kindness made my research (and non-research) days so much better!! Gracias!! vi Maja: Thank you for always being where I am, for the unquestionable visits (even to the mountains!) and for the unwavering support! Thank you for always being by my side my friend, I love you dearly! Agus: Por fin!!! Estamos donde queremos carajo!! VAMOS!!!! Lo único que falta aquí son tus hijos!! Gracias por tanto reina, te quiero tanto. Abuelos: Siempre me costó estar tan lejos, lejos de sus pleitos y sabiduría que nos hacían llegar a través de rimas, dichos, comida o chistes! Los extraño todos los días. Chaik: Gracias por el humor Mexa que siempre me das, especialmente cuando más lo necesito. Los videos, chistes y carcajadas por teléfono me ayudaron mucho mas de lo que te imaginas. Te amo baby! Gabo: Gracias por tanta serenidad, seguridad y apoyo incondicional. Gracias también por el mejor regalo del mundo: Lorenzo: gordo, gracias por tanta inspiración, tanto amor, tantas sonrisas y tantas lágrimas que me sacas desde lejos! Gordo, por ti- siempre! Papas… Escribí una tesis (en otro idioma) de 150 páginas, pero aun asi no puedo encontrar palabras para darles gracias ni explicarles cuánto los amo! Papá: ¡Gracias por enseñarme a dar todo de mí, siempre!, a tener una ética de trabajo bastante alta y a nunca rendirme. Mamá: Gracias por enseñarme y recordarme continuamente que mi valor como ser humano no depende de mis logros o fracasos, de victorias en tenis, títulos, becas, calificaciones, ni diplomas. Sin lugar a duda, es el mejor regalo que he recibido. LOS AMO, GRACIAS. Zenzike: Tengo un doctorado!!!... tambien!!! I could not have done this without you. Thank you, thank you, thank you...te amo con todo mi corazón. ¡Gracias por caminar esta vida conmigo! ¡A VIVIR! Deporte y Cambio Social: Women’s empowerment SDP program 1 Introduction Gender inequality is a significant global issue with women facing discrimination across social, economic, political, and cultural dimensions of society. The term “gender” describes the socially constructed responsibilities and roles that societies find adequate for men and women (WHO, 2019). Gender equality refers to “men and women having equal power and equal opportunities for financial independence, education, and personal development” (UNFPA, 2019, para. 3). Because men tend to possess more power in society, one way to achieve gender equality is through the development of strategies directed at women’s empowerment. Women’s empowerment is the process by which women gain power over their lives (Hargreaves, 1995). Some of the factors needed to achieve women’s empowerment are access to education, health, resources, land and employment (Grown et al., 2005). Women’s empowerment can also occur by creating strategies and programs that help women increase their leadership skills (Sperandio, 2011), self-esteem, confidence, autonomy and participation in society (Fiedrich et al., 2003). The promotion of gender equality is seen as a worldwide objective. The UN Sustainable Development goals for 2030 include goals specific to gender equality and women’s empowerment (UNOSDP, 2020). Currently, gender equality does not exist in any country. Mexico is ranked as the second lowest country in the world in labor force participation, and income and wage disparities specific to women (Gender Gap Report, 2019). In addition, harassment of women in Mexico and a culture of “machismo,” characterized by undesirable male aggressive behavior, are prevalent and the amount and type of violence that women experience are alarming (Englander et al., 2012; Revord, 2017). According to the United Nations (2018), Mexico is among the most violent countries for women in the world. Despite the existence of Deporte y Cambio Social: Women’s empowerment SDP program 2 laws that protect women from these actions, there have not been many improvements; in fact, Mexican cultural norms play a primordial role in violence against women. Mexican culture maintains that women are subservient to men (Anzaldúa, 1999), women are expected to be uneducated, not smart, not outspoken and not independent (Navarro, 2014). Early in their lives, men are taught that they should be decision makers, economic providers and they shouldn’t show emotions (Pick et al., 2006). Mexican culture professes to protect women by keeping them in rigid and defined roles and condemning them if they do not adhere to these roles (Ortega, 2015). Even though many women have stood up to these injustices, and legal reforms exist, societal norms continue to promote a high tolerance for violence against women and accept that men have power over women (Pick et al., 2006). Programs to Address Gender Inequality in Mexico To address the challenges facing women, the Mexican government has allocated $10 million to the Instituto Nacional de las Mujeres (Women’s National Institute) to be distributed among more than 100 initiatives and programs that promote gender equality and women’s empowerment (INMUJERES, 2020). These programs and initiatives focus on violence against women, women’s safety, economic and financial equality, health, and the creation of legislation that protects women. Even with government funding, limited information exists about what these programs entail, and no published evidence exists to show that they are serving most Mexican women or achieving their goals. Further, this funding works out to only $100k per organization, which is likely not enough money to thoroughly support substantial programming. Other organizations and institutions have created programs aiming to empower girls and women in Mexico by promoting education, skill building, and/or the use of sports. ‘Promoting Women’s Economic Empowerment in Mexico’ (Mohiuddin, 2016), ‘Empowering the future Deporte y Cambio Social: Women’s empowerment SDP program 3 generation of Mexican Female leaders’ (Vargas, 2018), ‘She Wins Mexico’ (Vales, 2015) and ‘Fut sin Genero’(Kuri, 2019) are examples of initiatives that have the goal of supporting the empowerment of Mexican women and helping close the gender gap. Even though these programs report successes, none have a theoretical foundation nor an objective program evaluation. These programs have also been criticized for being scarce and lacking engagement. Mexican Women and Sport For women in Mexico, formal exercise has not been a long held cultural norm. Until recently it was believed that exercise should occur while women clean, take care of the children, and cook (Delgado, 1999). Societal norms suggested that sport and physical activity were not conducive for the development of young women. Therefore, it was not seen as attractive or acceptable for women to participate in sports (Ordorica, 2005); and those who did were faced with prejudice and discrimination (Aybar, 2008). Once people realized that sport and physical activity are important for the psychological, physical, and social development of children, in 1988 the Mexican government required physical education to be included in school curricula (Secretaría de Educación Pública, 2013). After this transition, women were encouraged to participate in women-only sports that focused on cooperation rather than competition and aggression (Roth & Basow, 2004). This situation has slowly shifted, giving way to some changes in the social structure of sports for women (Villanueva & Luevano, 2016). Currently, gender equality is required in all programs organized by the Mexican’s National Commission for Physical Culture and Sport (CONADE), and these programs are expected to benefit Mexican boys and men, girls and women equally (Villanueva & Luevano, 2016). Women’s Empowerment through Sport Deporte y Cambio Social: Women’s empowerment SDP program 4 Sport participation has been empirically supported as an engaging and inclusive means to initiate change (Beutler, 2008). Researchers support the idea that participation in sport and physical activity has positive benefits for girls and women. Apart from the general physical benefits, sport can also help to increase participants’ leadership skills, independence and the value of working within rules and structure (Pick et al., 2006). Sport participation and physical activity can help young women have a lower risk of teen pregnancy and greater control over their fertility (Miller et al., 1998); it can help increase women’s self-esteem and confidence and may be an appropriate context for promoting women’s development and empowerment (Saavedra, 2009). Sport can also be used to empower women and girls and liberate them from hegemonic feminine ideals (Saavedra, 2005). It is also argued that through participation in sports women can learn leadership skills and develop social networks that can impact other areas of their lives (Lumpkin, 2012). Although many benefits are associated with participation in sports, it may also be important to consider additional factors when developing sport programs specific to women and girls. For instance, it is important to keep in mind the prejudice and misconceptions related to women in sports, religion, women’s safety, eating disorders, and other issues surrounding gender and sexual norms (Pick et al., 2006; Saavedra, 2005). Doing so will help make programs culturally appropriate, relevant, viable in communities, and sensitive to the identities of the women involved. Sport for Development and Peace Sport for Development and Peace (SDP) programs aim to achieve specific development and peace goals, which are often associated with the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). The eight MDGs are: “1) Eradicating extreme poverty and hunger, 2) Achieving universal primary education, 3) Promoting gender equality and empowering women, 4) Reducing child Deporte y Cambio Social: Women’s empowerment SDP program 5 mortality, 5) Improving maternal health, 6) Combating HIV and AIDS, malaria, and other diseases, 7) Ensuring environmental sustainability and 8) Developing a global partnership for development” (WHO, MDG, 2015, p.1). As evidenced by the MDG’s, the overall goal of SDP programs is to facilitate both individual and societal change by designing sport-based programs where participants can transfer the knowledge and skills gained from programming into their societies (Kaufman & Wolff, 2010). These programs often seek to attain these goals by combining sport with other non-sport activities in a holistic manner (Kidd, 2008) and have been used to support a range of outcomes, including prevention of crime, improved education and youth development, and promotion of gender equality (Hartmann & Kwauk, 2011). Although gender is not a theme that is well represented in the SDP literature (Schulenkorf et al., 2016), researchers suggest that when women are the focus of development programming, they are able to bring financial, social, and cultural shifts and improvements to their families and community (Brady, 2005; Pelak, 2005). Even though researchers have shown that SDP interventions can have positive outcomes (Hayden et al., 2012), these effects do not happen automatically, intentionally designed programs are needed (Cárdenas, 2013). To enhance the success of SDP programs, it is suggested that they include the following: creation of environments conducive to change, inclusion of participants during all stages, adoption of individual and systems approaches to change, cultural considerations, implementation of systematic evaluation, and a theoretical foundation (Dixon et al., 2019). When conducting an SDP program, it is important that cultural differences are acknowledged and respected. It is also important to consider the ethnicity, gender, age, socioeconomic status and background of the participants as well as of the people implementing the program. To address this issue, SDP programs have used a train-the-trainer approach Deporte y Cambio Social: Women’s empowerment SDP program 6 (Sugden, 2006) that enhances the reach and effectiveness of the program by training coaches to implement SDP programs. Research suggests that with training, coaches can more effectively create positive sport environments and have more meaningful interactions with their athletes, which supports their psychosocial development and expands the reach of the program (Conroy & Coatsworth, 2006). Additionally, researchers suggest that SDP programs should be grounded in theory (Dixon et al, 2019). This consideration is two-fold: 1) to explain how and why behavioral change will occur; and 2) to combine theory and practical sessions as a more powerful learning strategy (Lyras & Peachey, 2011). Even though several theories often inform SDP programs (e.g., Positive Youth Development, Social Capital, etc.), there is no consensus on a comprehensive theory or model that should be used (Whitley et al., 2019). Therefore, there is a need to explore the merits of different grounding frameworks as the foundation for SDP programs. Grounding Framework - Social Change Model The Social Change Model (SCM) of Leadership Development (Higher Education Research Institute, HERI, 1996) is a model that focuses on the development of leadership at the individual and societal levels. In this model, leadership is viewed as “a purposeful, collaborative, values-based process that results in a positive social change” (Komives & Wagner, 2016, p.wii). This model is values-based and inclusive of all people since it is assumed that community engagement helps to create change (Dugan & Komives, 2007). The SCM is divided into three major value areas: individual, group, and societal values. These three value areas include other values, namely congruence, consciousness of self, and commitment (individual); controversy with civility, collaboration and common purpose (group); and citizenship (societal). These seven values interact with each other to create the eighth value: change. Change is the ultimate goal Deporte y Cambio Social: Women’s empowerment SDP program 7 and therefore gives meaning and purpose to the other values (Komives & Wagner, 2016). The SCM has been used by researchers and practitioners interested in leadership development in diverse settings (Komives & Wagner, 2016). Although the SCM has never been used as the grounding model for SDP programs, it may be particularly appropriate because it addresses several of the key considerations for effective SDP programs. SDP programs emphasize the value of a systems approach (vs. solely an individual approach) to support sustainable social change. The SCM addresses leadership and change at the individual, group, and societal level through the application of seven values that span these three levels. Another consideration for effective SDP programs is creating an environment that is conducive to change. The SCM is a universal values-based model, which emphasizes creating positive environments where equality, social justice, and service are constantly present. This environment consequently supports change. Additionally, it is important for SDP programs to include participants during all stages of the program and to be aware of cultural considerations. One of the SCM’s core ideas is that change, and leadership are collaborative processes and therefore everyone is encouraged to take part in these processes. Finally, to provide evidence for efficacy and a mechanism of change, SDP programs should employ systematic evaluations. The SRLS is an instrument that was developed to quantitatively measure the different values of the SCM and allows participants to be involved in the evaluation process. It appears that the SCM may be an effective framework for grounding SDP programs. Purposes The purposes of this project are multidimensional. The first two purposes are to: (a) understand the experiences of a sub-sample of participants in the “Deporte y Cambio Social” program, and their perceptions of gender, gender in leadership, and the application of sport in Deporte y Cambio Social: Women’s empowerment SDP program 8 creating social change; and (b) explore the utility of using the SCM as a grounding model for SDP programs focused on issues of gender and leadership. The third purpose is to facilitate my goal of becoming a more effective scholar and practitioner since my career goal is to continue working with people and sports in this manner. The last purpose is to better understand my own experience of how sport has empowered me to be a Mexican woman, and a scholar-practitioner in the United States. Research Questions Based on the purposes of this dissertation, the current study addresses the following research questions: 1) What were the experiences of a sub-sample of coaches who took part in the ‘Deporte y Cambio Social’ program? 2) As a result of participation in the program, how did perceptions of leadership change, if at all? 3) As a result of participation in the program, how did perceptions of gender (in relation to their role as sport educators/coaches) change, if at all? 4) How effective was the SCM as a model to ground the ‘Deporte y Cambio Social’ program? Methods In this study, I utilized a qualitative methodology consisting of focus group interviews with the purpose of examining the experiences of a sub-sample of coaches who took part in the ‘Deporte y Cambio Social’ program. My philosophical perspective has informed the social constructivist approach taken to address the research questions in this study (Harper, 2011). Ontologically, I maintain the relativist perspective that there is not only one reality, but that all individuals create their own unique reality based on their perceptions and meanings of experiences (Sale et al., 2002). Using a social constructivist overarching framework with a Deporte y Cambio Social: Women’s empowerment SDP program 9 relativist ontological perspective, also aligns with this program’s structure and purpose, since it was developed with the intention of promoting social change through sport participation and the interaction between participants through workshops and practical activities. Consistent with this epistemological approach, the methodology of this dissertation sought to give voice to the participants, and thereby understand the meaning they gave to their interactions and experiences. For a more comprehensive overview of the methods, an extended methods section can be found in appendix B. Positionality The organizing group for this program consisted of four Americans (all of whom were born and raised in the USA), one Chilean (born and raised in Chile; a naturalized United States citizen, fluent in Spanish and English), and me. I am the first author of this paper and I am a Mexican woman who was born and raised in Mexico City, Mexico. I have personal experience with gender inequality in Mexico, and I have lived where conscious and unconscious discrimination towards women is a constant. I have always been interested in helping women gain their own voice and based on my own experiences, I believe that sport participation is a great means for accomplishing that. I believe that I am who I am in part because of my experiences in sport. My upbringing and life experiences had an impact on this research process, program development, methodology, implementation, and data analysis. This was beneficial because: 1) I am well informed about the situation of women in Mexico; 2) I believe that because of my past experiences and my fluency in Spanish, I was able to connect with the Mexican participants easily; 3) I may not have been perceived as an outsider, which may have allowed me to get more accurate information from participants; and 4) Given my experiences, I was able to use my positionality to explore the purposes of this research project. Deporte y Cambio Social: Women’s empowerment SDP program 10 I am also aware that my past may also confound this research since, unknowingly: 1) I likely projected my personal experiences and views onto the participants’ answers; and 2) response bias (Huberman et al., 2014) may have occurred if participants felt compelled to respond in ways they thought I wanted to hear. Hence, it was important to include multiple researchers, with different nationalities, genders, and backgrounds, to help decrease the influence of bias and highlight blind spots when conducting the program and analyzing results. Program Development and Description The “Deporte y Cambio Social” was an eight-day soccer-based program that used the SCM as a grounding framework and aimed to initiate social change through the empowerment and development of leadership skills among young women in Mexico. This program was designed to use a train-the-trainer model (Blom et al., 2015; Conroy & Coatsworth, 2006) with the goal of promoting sustainability and expanding the reach of the program. The current study is part of a larger research project, and portions of the overall data have previously been submitted for publication (Hansell et al., 2020). This portion of the project focuses on understanding the experiences and the learning outcomes of a sub-sample of participants in this program and also aims to provide qualitative evidence assessing the potential utility of the SCM as a grounding model of an SDP program that supports women’s empowerment. Setting The program took place at a large public university in Nuevo Leon, Monterrey, Mexico. The Sports Organization Department at that institution shared their classrooms and sport facilities so the organizing group and the professional participants could implement the program. Sample and Recruitment Deporte y Cambio Social: Women’s empowerment SDP program 11 Program participants consisted of college undergraduate and graduate students and local coaches who were, or had intentions of, working with women athletes. Seventy-four Mexican participants (28 men and 46 women) aged 18-57 years old (M = 23) participated in the program. For the current study, a sub-group of 24 participants were randomly selected and asked via email to participate in a focus group interview. A total of 18 (13 responded affirmatively to the email, and five recruited through convenient sampling) individuals took part in the focus group interviews. Participants (8 men and 10 women) ranged in age from 18-29 years old. Instrument and Interviews A semi-structured interview guide was created and used to address the participants’ experiences in the program, their learning outcomes, and if/how the program helped them change their perspectives about leadership, gender, and/or empowerment. Sample items included: ‘Describe your experience of participating in this program’ and ‘Did this program change your perceptions of leadership? If so, how?’. Focus group interviews were used to examine the participants’ experiences in this program. We chose this method of data collection because: 1) the data generated through the social interactions of group members, are often richer and deeper than those obtained through one-on-one interviews (Thomas et al., 1995), 2) data can provide information about a range of ideas and feelings about certain issues, as well as illustrate the differences in perspective between individuals (Rabiee, 2004), and 3) this method of data collection maximizes efficiency while also reducing the participant’s load (Jackson, 1998). Data Collection Procedures Study approval was obtained from an Institutional Review Board prior to the beginning of program activities. At the end of the program, focus groups were conducted by two Deporte y Cambio Social: Women’s empowerment SDP program 12 researchers who are fluent in Spanish and English (Mexican woman and American man). Before any of the interviews started, the researchers told the participants that they were free to express themselves, regardless of the tone and tenor of their comments towards the program, the other gender, or other cultures. Participants were also reminded that their participation was voluntary, and they could stop at any point. All participants gave their verbal consent to continue and to record the sessions. The three focus group interviews were conducted in Spanish and lasted between 43-63 minutes. Focus groups were both video and voice recorded, and notes were taken during (or immediately after) the interviews. Data Analysis In line with a social constructivist epistemological framework, a reflexive thematic analysis was used to analyze the data following Braun and Clarke’s (2006) six phases approach (i.e., familiarizing, coding, theme development, refinement, naming and writing up). All interviews and notes were transcribed verbatim and translated from Spanish to English by a professional translator and reviewed by a Mexican woman to ensure the quality of the transcripts. A research team was developed and consisted of the primary researcher, a secondary researcher (American man who took part in the development and implementation of the program) and a critical friend (American woman, who was not part of the program), all of whom were involved in the data analysis to provide honest and impartial feedback. All members of the research team conducted bracketing interviews prior to starting data analysis with the purpose of acknowledging our backgrounds and values before starting the coding process. Data analysis was mostly based on an inductive (data-driven) approach; however, a deductive (theory-driven) approach (Hsieh & Shannon, 2005) was used to answer the fourth research question. Deporte y Cambio Social: Women’s empowerment SDP program 13 Following Braun and Clarke’s (2006) six phases for reflexive thematic analysis, we read the transcripts several times to become acquainted with the information before coding. We began with open coding (inductive approach). These codes were generated independently. To ensure trustworthiness, each of us kept analytic memos with our ideas and thoughts about the codes, the relationship between the codes and/or any questions (Glaser, 1978). We met once or twice per week to discuss the codes that we had generated on our own and engaged in conversations that explained the reasons these codes were chosen. Transcripts were coded until consensus was achieved (Saldaña, 2013). Once done coding the transcripts, we looked for relationships between codes and put them together into bigger categories (i.e., themes and subthemes). We jointly created three thematic maps (one for each of the first three research questions), and once agreed upon, we moved onto refinement. Each of us re-read the transcripts and verified that all data was represented by the themes and subthemes (Braun & Clarke, 2006). Finally, the themes were defined and named in a way that was clear for readers. The extracts that provided a vivid and compelling example of the themes were selected for the report. Once the three thematic maps were completed, we analyzed the codes using a deductive approach. This process explored the similarities between the themes and subthemes from the inductive analysis and the main values of the SCM (HERI, 1996). HERI’s (1996) operational definition of each of the seven values of the SCM were utilized to clarify what each of the values look like in practice and behaviors. The way we individually categorized the themes and subthemes in relation to the SCM was: 1) the theme/subtheme that fit within one of the seven values of the SCM, and under which value, and 2) the themes/subthemes that are not related to the SCM. We went through this process individually and then came together as a group to generate consensus. This thematic map informed the fourth research question. Deporte y Cambio Social: Women’s empowerment SDP program 14 Results and Discussion This results and discussion section presents and discusses the findings of the current study related to participants’ perceptions and experiences in the ‘Deporte y Cambio Social’ program, specific to gender, leadership, and sport. This section is divided into four main sections that encompass each of the four research questions: 1) What were the experiences of a sub sample of coaches who took part in the ‘Deporte y Cambio Social’ program?, 2) As a result of participation in the program, how did perception of leadership change, if at all?, 3) As a result of participation in the program, how did perceptions of gender (in relation to their role as sport educators/coaches) change, if at all?, and 4) How effective was the SCM as a model to ground the ‘Deporte y Cambio Social’ program? Overall, the combined inductive and deductive reflexive thematic analysis yielded 683 raw meaning units, which were synthesized into nine higher order themes. 1) What were the experiences of a sub-sample of coaches who took part in the ‘Deporte y Cambio Social’ program? In reference to research question one, raw meaning units were organized into three higher order themes (program format, outcomes of the program, and program suggestions), 10 middle order themes (i.e., expectations, methodology, utility of material, empowerment, relationships, values, social change takes time, follow up, time, and participants) and 33 lower order themes (see Table 1 for thematic map 1). Program format Program format refers to the participants’ statements regarding the structure, content and methodology of the program. Participants shared their expectations for the program, their Deporte y Cambio Social: Women’s empowerment SDP program 15 opinions about the methodology (including the structure and the way in which the US leadership was involved), and the utility of the material learned. Expectations. Several participants had negative expectations for this program: “No, this is going to be something heavy, something tedious, three days memorizing tasks…” Which aligned with previous literature stating that women’s empowerment programs in Mexico do not have a very good reputation; they have been criticized for being impractical, monotonous and lacking engagement (Ochman, 2016). Once participants realized that soccer was the vehicle chosen to spark interest in initiating change, their feelings were polarized, some were averse to it: “I think they all said, what? soccer? a lot of people didn't want to do it because of that”, and others were looking forward to it, given their attraction to the sport: “soccer is a global sport, and it is my favorite sport.” These findings underscore the importance of sport selection (e.g., familiar sport vs new sport) when developing a sport-based program to create balance between pushing participants out of their comfort zone (e.g., growth) and building their confidence (e.g., through competence; Bean et al., 2014; Whitely et al., 2016). Methodology. Participants’ preference for and perceived benefits of an active learning methodology was evident: “...the interweave, theory-practice, kept what we had worked on fresh on us, so it was easier to apply it to practice. Pure theory bores you, you don't understand anything, and then you go to practice and you say, ‘and now what?’.” To keep high levels of engagement in this program, theory and practice sessions were interwoven and participants expressed their affinity for this approach. Throughout the program, several learning strategies were utilized (e.g.: self-reflection, discussion, presentations, and experiential learning) to deliver the content. Participants mentioned that these activities were engaging: “... from the beginning it caught my attention, since they talked about what the activities were going to be, these were very Deporte y Cambio Social: Women’s empowerment SDP program 16 neat, I liked them a lot.” Participants’ statements further confirmed the importance of having activities that keep participants engaged, active and entertained throughout the program. These results further support the fact that the methodology, structure and content of programming are essential to promote participants’ development (Holt, et al., 2012). More specifically, enjoyment and engagement are cited as primary contributing factors for initiation and maintenance of sport participation and essential when targeting vulnerable populations (Whitley & Gould, 2010). Further, when training coaches, it is important to diversify the learning/teaching modalities used, given that coaches often prefer educational approaches that utilize different learning experiences that have a strong focus on both pedagogical and practical knowledge (Mesquita et al., 2014). Participants also noted several aspects that they appreciated from the structure of the program such as the way their points of view and different perspectives were welcomed: “... you gave us the guidance and let us do and undo, you never imposed anything, you explained what to do and we were there, you let us express ourselves and you learned, and we also learned”; and the way in which the US leadership was involved: “I really valued that the teacher and the one who is also a director, and the one who is going to be a director, they all enjoyed doing those games with us, and playing, and jumping, and yes we have to run, or jump, that is, that teaches and that kind of value” The type of leadership behavior that participants valued in the US leaders aligned with previous research stating that Mexicans prefer leaders who can be relatable (Raffaelli & Ontai, 2004) since they place importance on building relationships and collaboration with each other (Dugan, et al., 2011). Deporte y Cambio Social: Women’s empowerment SDP program 17 Additionally, participants’ appreciation for the collaborative approach to teaching/learning, supported one of the key SCM concepts: to avoid the imposition of one’s views or position on another (HERI, 1996). Further, taking an approach that promotes the continued involvement of participants can increase the likelihood of accountability and therefore the possible sustainability of outcomes through collaboration (Whitley, et al., 2014). Utility of material. Participants in the current program, ranging from practicing adults to college age students aspiring to teach and coach, valued the utility of the material learned. They stated that many of the topics covered in the program transcended sport: “I think the course has a lot of important things that we can apply at any time, they are all necessary, values, teamwork, coexistence, everything is important to apply in our life”; and were applicable to their jobs in the future: “...everything we talked in these workshops is useful for us when we finish [school] and start working.” These statements demonstrate that participants in this program have thought about where and how they can apply the material learned during this program, after it is over. Even though this seems like a positive outcome, one of the common criticisms of SDP programs is the deficiency of transferability of skills from the field and during the program to other areas of the participants’ lives (Dixon et al., 2019). In sport-based life skills development for youth, research indicates that transfer is more likely to happen if youth find the program content meaningful and useful for real-world situations and if they are motivated to use the skills in alternative contexts (Jacobs & Wright, 2018). It is also important to question the sustainability of the knowledge and skills gained during the program. Without additional programming, knowledge and skills may mitigate over time due to the influence of cultural norms (Cohen, et al., 2020). Furthermore, it is important to keep in mind that participants may be faced with opposition once they try to implement their Deporte y Cambio Social: Women’s empowerment SDP program 18 newly acquired skills and knowledge in their day to day lives, especially if they do not feel safe adopting behaviors that go against their cultural norms (Jacobs & Wright, 2018). This shines light on the importance of further involvement and communication with (and between) participants, following the completion of the program, to identify and help overcome potential barriers. Outcomes of the program Outcomes of the program refers to the participants’ opinions of the experiences and takeaways of the program. Participants shared that throughout the program they were able to feel empowered, gain knowledge and skills, form different relationships, learn about the importance of several values, and recognize the role of sport and coaches in social change. Empowerment. Participants in the current program expressed feelings of empowerment and increased self-confidence. One participant stated that: “this program revived me and brought me back into the world and I quite liked it”, another participant said: “a lot was revived in me and now all those fears, all those insecurities are gone, and I feel like I'm secure, and I can still accomplish many more things.” Other participants focused on their self-confidence and their relation to others: “I think it gave us the courage to value ourselves and always keep in mind that you can do whatever you want obviously without harming anyone else…”, and another participant shared: “I think I reflected and realized, and the truth is that we can change the world more if we want it, and that Mexico and everyone can change the negative to positive.” Another participant shared the way she felt after the program and how she sees herself moving forward: “...in this week I have changed a lot, it has given me more confidence to talk to people, more ease to be able to develop my ideas and that within my sport you want to show your Deporte y Cambio Social: Women’s empowerment SDP program 19 companions everything that you can be able to do yourself, or with them, in order to achieve the objectives.” Participants’ increases in self-esteem, self-confidence and feelings of empowerment were displayed, further supporting previous sport-based programs’ literature which have reported that after the conclusion of the program, women participants showed an increase in self-esteem, self confidence, and participation in society (Pedersen & Siedman, 2004; Saavedra, 2009). Given that Mexico is founded in a patriarchal culture in which women tend to be subdued to men (Ortega, 2015), the fact that women participants felt empowered, with an increased self-esteem and with motivation to initiate change is very positive not only for themselves but also for their athletes. Coaches and PE teachers are role models for children (Coalter, 2010). Therefore, if participants felt that the program was truly a ‘transformational experience’, which helped them change their perceptions of their own agency and empowerment (Jacobs & Wright, 2018) and helped them become leaders (Turnnridge & Côté, 2018), then they may be more likely to use what they have learned while coaching younger generations. Relationships. Participants in this program mentioned that they were able to create new relationships with people from the US: “you didn’t spend time saying, ‘we are the group from the US’, but you were very strategic, and you involved all of us, having new relationships”, and with Mexican participants: “I met people, I would have never come close to, or talk to.” Demonstrating that interacting with Mexican peers and US participants throughout the program allowed them to create new relationships. In Mexico, creating relationships and personal connections is of extreme importance (Jonsson & Snealand, 2018), therefore this is an outcome that strongly aligns with the Mexican cultural values. Furthermore, participants also realized the importance of creating relationships with their own athletes: Deporte y Cambio Social: Women’s empowerment SDP program 20 “...ask them at least, how are you? how about your day? how did you wake up today? maybe these are simple questions, but you never know how the person really is, you never know if the way he or she woke up is going to benefit or harm the team...” Participants’ reflections on how little things can make a big difference, and the impact that the relationship with their athletes can have on their individual and team performance was beneficial given that the coach-athlete relationship is fundamental for the process of creating a positive experience where personal development can occur (Holt, et al., 2017). Previous SDP program research states that after participating in SDP programs, participants showed an improvement in their interactions with others, in their capacities to create new relationships (Cárdenas, 2012), and an increased sense of belonging and positive communication with others (Hayden et al., 2012) which was further supported by participants in this program. Values. Participants also reported program learning outcomes such as the importance of values. Some of the values they mentioned included: integrity, respect, kindness, empathy, communication, teamwork, tolerance, commitment, open mindedness, coexistence, collaboration, service to others, common purpose, and adaptability. These findings are promising as social values contribute to and greatly influence the rate and direction of social change (Burnes & Jackson, 2011). Values influence behavior, and there is a positive relationship between value alignment, followers’ commitment and goal achievement (Cohen & Keren, 2008). Moreover, followers who see that a proposed change intervention is congruent with their own values are more likely to show commitment and enthusiasm (Neves & Caetano, 2009). Since participants were (or training to be) coaches and PE teachers, they talked about the role values play in sport: “Well I think values, we sometimes overlook them, and we assume that they already know it or that they have been taught in schools, I think you must always instill Deporte y Cambio Social: Women’s empowerment SDP program 21 them”; and recognized that values can influence the athletes’ performance: “... and that values influence the performance of your player within the game.” The fact that participants recognized the role and utility of values within their sport and with their athletes may increase the likelihood of values implementation during coaching/teaching sessions (Delgado & Gómez, 2011). Further, considering that several participants work with young children (whose set of beliefs are not fully formed; Ortega, 2015), implementing values into their coaching would increase the likelihood of those children internalizing them and creating a change in their society. The Role of Sport and Coaches in Social Change. Many of the experiences that participants went through, allowed them to reflect on the fact that social change is a process that does not happen automatically. For changes to be impactful and sustainable, the issue must be addressed at the individual and community levels (Hartmann & Kwauk, 2011). Participants were able to not only think about their individual responsibilities but also about the things that they can do to initiate social change within their communities. Participants recognized sport as a versatile tool to enhance social change. They talked about how their experiences going through this program allowed them to have a better idea of how sports can be used for developing greater good: “Well, I hadn't thought about how to help the community before, then in a way I became aware of how they involve young people in sport and take them away from all the problems that they may have, and in low income areas that are dangerous.” These findings are important because given their profession/education, participants spend a lot of time coaching or teaching physical education to children/young adults. Further, since sport has been empirically supported as an engaging and inclusive means to initiate change (Beutler, Deporte y Cambio Social: Women’s empowerment SDP program 22 2008), this seems like a great avenue for participants to continue to do their job while consciously working to make their community a better place. Apart from the general physical benefits, sport participation can also help increase participants’ independence, self-esteem, confidence, and feelings of empowerment (Pick et al., 2006). Participants in this program echoed these findings by reflecting on the power of sport in their own lives: “... sports are something that saves me a lot, and that keeps me cheerful, alert and with encouragement”, and as a teaching technique: “the sport itself teaches us the value of justice, the value of loyalty, of companionship, it is the pure essence of sport.” Sport experiences and outcomes may vary from person to person. Coaches are known as the gatekeepers of these experiences since they are in-charge of creating the sport environment for their athletes (Conroy & Coatsworth, 2006). Participants in this program also acknowledged that coaches and PE teachers are powerful role models in the community: “as a coach you have a lot of power over children, and you can lead them into a good path and develop them that way”, and that they can impact the athletes’ thinking processes and mindsets: “The role of the coach and the physical education educator is very important, because it influences the development of youth, we don't see it, but now we can change things for young people, their way of thinking, instill in them these values, change that mentality.” Participants demonstrated awareness of their influence on their athletes by talking about the importance of modeling behaviors for them: “we don’t only have to say it, but we have to do it, being consistent with what we say and what we do, in training as well as in our life.” Other participants also acknowledged their professional responsibility to teach values to their athletes: “...to be able to teach [values] and the responsibility we have as professionals, as future Deporte y Cambio Social: Women’s empowerment SDP program 23 professionals is high.” Participants’ awareness of their roles and responsibilities as coaches and educators was evidenced. Awareness is an essential part of initiating change (Higgs & Rowland, 2010), therefore participants’ acknowledgements of their power and responsibilities to their athletes (especially the younger ones) is a good first step. Further, the fact that participants realized that for social change to happen, they would all have to take individual responsibility and use their power as coaches and PE teachers to influence younger generations, are positive signs that the train-the trainer approach could be efficient if participants remember the skills and knowledge gained in this program after it is over and apply it at their jobs (Pearce et al., 2012). In the future, the authors aim to assess for participants’ sustainability and transferability of skills learned in this program. Program suggestions Program suggestions refers to the participants’ opinions about aspects of the program that could be modified and improved. The first suggestion was to increase the number of participants and to target those participants who have a desire to implement the skills: “To increase the number of participants and choose the people who want to take it, because some were not interested, they did not appreciate the work.” This suggestion shines light on the importance of recruitment strategies, including selection and number of participants. Participants in the current program were recruited through different means (e.g., personal invitations from the college director, individual sign up if interested in the program, and some were instructed to attend by their professors). Participants who were not interested in the program, might have been the ones who were instructed to attend rather than the ones who voluntarily signed up. Personalizing Deporte y Cambio Social: Women’s empowerment SDP program 24 offerings, and actively finding and recruiting people who want to be part of the program is the first step for a successful SDP program implementation (Lawson, 2005). SDP programs for youth have varied in length, with some lasting as little as 12 days and others lasting as long as five years (Baker et al., 2015). The current program lasted only eight days, and participants stated that they would have liked the program to last longer: “Just that sadly you give us only a week, and if the program gave us two weeks or even three weeks it would be better.” Some shared that more time would have been beneficial to be able to practice and develop their skills: “because with the week we had we did learn something, but if that week had been a more extensive course, we would have taken it into practice, to see if it worked or not, to see if we have more skills as leaders.” Participants’ desire for a longer implementation period was also evidenced by the last suggestion to include follow up contact: “To do a follow up... so that you go somewhere else and then we create something and tell you, hey you know what, with what you taught us we are doing this.” After programs have concluded, follow up interventions and future evaluations are recommended to increase the likelihood of sustainability of impact (Blom et al, 2015). 2) As a result of participation in the program, how did perceptions of leadership change, if at all? When analyzing research question two, all data was encompassed by one higher order theme (leadership is multifaceted), six middle order themes (i.e., reaffirming and broadening definition, leadership qualities, leadership is a process, leadership style, sport for leadership development and means of empowerment) and 20 lower order themes (see Table 2 for thematic map 2). Leadership is multifaceted Deporte y Cambio Social: Women’s empowerment SDP program 25 The perception that leadership is multifaceted was the overarching theme for participant’s changed perceptions about leadership. Overall, participants’ perceptions of leadership changed to understand that leadership is not unidimensional. In fact, it encompasses many different factors including definitions, values, relationships, bonds, trust, followers, and it can be demonstrated, developed and utilized in different contexts and for different reasons. Reaffirming and broadening definition. When participants were asked about their views of leadership, some stated that their perceptions of leadership changed: “My perception did change, there are many more traits, many more things that a person who is a leader has”, and others shared that: “I do not know if it changed, but at least it complemented the idea I had of a leader, which involves serving and how we have effective leadership.” Expanding participants’ leadership definitions is a step towards initiating change given that rigid definitions of leadership and cultural tightness have maintained the status quo of having men (and not women) in leadership and powerful positions (Toh & Leonardelli, 2012). Leadership qualities. Having a shared vision, having charisma, being a good communicator, being honest, inspirational, trustworthy, and just are considered universal qualities of leaders (Dorfman et al., 2012). Mexican participants identified several similar qualities that good leaders possess, such as the ability to work collaboratively with others and being adaptable to others and their ideas. They also mentioned the importance of a leader being holistic, self-confident, having a clear vision: “be[ing] very clear about the objectives'', and being able to manage people by making them feel equal: “... that is at the same level as his collaborators, not above them, so that they can relate to him.” These quotes demonstrate similarity between universal leadership qualities and those valued by participants. Deporte y Cambio Social: Women’s empowerment SDP program 26 In Mexico, there is a strong emphasis on respect in hierarchies and social relationships (Raffaelli & Ontai, 2004) that was noted by participants who talked about the relationship between leadership and respect: “... to respect, whether it be the players, our families and everyone, and I believe that within a leader there must be respect.” Participants also talked about the importance of integrity, encouragement and empathy to be a successful leader: “…[leaders] have to have a good empathy, relationship, integrity, and vision, to reach the objectives without any problem.” These findings align with the Mexican culture given that treating people with respect, being empathetic, and developing trust are dominant guidelines for interpersonal relationships and leadership status (Howell et al., 2007). Even though participants were able to identify and mention several different qualities that good leaders possess, none talked about self-awareness and shared responsibility. These are often considered essential components to effective leadership (Dugan & Komives, 2007; Kezar et al, 2008), and could point to a missing component of program design. Leadership is a process. Participants in this program recognized that leadership is a process that requires constant learning: “A leader must be in constant change, in constant learning, and constant growth as a person.” Participants also stated that effective leadership does not only depend on one person, and there is a big role played by the leader’s followers: “The first follower is important, the followers you have, then you make an impact on them, you can get the idea that you're going to be relaxed and that they're going to follow you at that moment, because that's what's important, how you impact people, for me it's the fundamental thing.” Participants further recognized that leadership is a process where the leader needs to create trust and build relationships with his/her followers: Deporte y Cambio Social: Women’s empowerment SDP program 27 “Yes, you have to know how to listen and talk to them, make them part of the family, soccer is a family, it is a way in which many people integrate and as I tell you, get acquainted with the players. At least: how are you? Some problems that I can help you with? This is a way in which they integrate into the group of players-coach and I integrate them as part of the team.” These findings share common elements with three of the four transformational leadership dimensions: influencing followers through role modeling and relationships grounded in respect (i.e., idealized influence), through the use of unity and a clear vision (i.e., inspirational motivation), and by demonstrating care and viewing each follower as an individual with their own needs (i.e., individualized consideration) (Turnnidge & Côté, 2018). In Mexican leadership culture, there is a similar emphasis on trusting relationships. In Mexico, more than reciprocal relationships between the leader and the followers (Northouse, 2010), personal connections and trust are heavily emphasized for the creation of effective leadership (Jonsson & Snealand, 2018). In Mexico, to gain the support of followers and thereby increase the likelihood of successfully reaching their goals, leaders must be genuin