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West Virginia University Jaxson S. Judkins West Virginia University Follow this and additional works at: https://researchrepository.wvu.edu/etd Part of the Other Psychology Commons, and the Sports Studies Commons Recommended Citation Judkins, Jaxson S., "Examining the Online Marketing of Sport Psychology Services by Certified Mental Performance Consultants: A Rhetorical Analysis" (2024). Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports. 12648. https://researchrepository.wvu.edu/etd/12648 This Dissertation is protected by copyright and/or related rights. It has been brought to you by the The Research Repository @ WVU with permission from the rights-holder(s). You are free to use this Dissertation in any way that is permitted by the copyright and related rights legislation that applies to your use. For other uses you must obtain permission from the rights-holder(s) directly, unless additional rights are indicated by a Creative Commons license in the record and/ or on the work itself. This Dissertation has been accepted for inclusion in WVU Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports collection by an authorized administrator of The Research Repository @ WVU. For more information, please contact researchrepository@mail.wvu.edu. Examining the Online Marketing of Sport Psychology Services by Certified Mental Performance Consultants: A Rhetorical Analysis Jaxson S. Judkins, M.A. Dissertation submitted to the College of Applied Human Sciences at West Virginia University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology Sam Zizzi, Ed.D., Chair Lisa Platt, Ph.D. D. Jake Follmer, Ph.D. Adam Zundell, M.S. School of Sport Sciences Morgantown, West Virginia 2024 Keywords: persuasion, rhetoric, sport psychology services, social media, marketing Copyright 2024 Jaxson S. Judkins Abstract Examining the Online Marketing of Sport Psychology Services by Certified Mental Performance Consultants: A Rhetorical Analysis Jaxson Judkins, M.A. In recent years, Certified Mental Performance Consultants (CMPCs) have increased their footprint in social media to connect with those that seek sport psychology services (Cotterill & Symes, 2014). The aim of this study was to identify what social media platforms are most used among CMPCs and what persuasive elements are used to draw in potential clients. All active CMPCs from 1992 to 2023 were examined to determine the most popular social media platforms used, followed by an analysis of 219 CMPCs based on their ownership of a LinkedIn account and professional website. Results indicated that LinkedIn and the consultants’ custom professional website were the most popular online platforms used. The most common rhetorical strategies used included authority, ethos, and pathos to market the benefits of their consulting services to the public. Lastly, master’s level CMPCs used reciprocity and social proof in greater volume, whereas doctoral level CMPCs leaned more on authority to establish persuasiveness. Future research could explore short video content produced by CMPCs on social media platforms to gain new insights into consumer engagement with sport psychology services. iii Acknowledgements “A tame horse never made a skilled rider” became my mantra during this Ph.D. journey, drawing upon my childhood riding horses and the reality that every fall is another opportunity to dust myself off and become more refined. I knew that I would get “bucked off” with no warning along the Ph.D. path, but I knew I could accomplish this endeavor if given the chance. What I couldn’t predict was the amount of support I received from those around me; their encouragement to get back in the saddle and ride on. Reflecting on this journey, I am filled with a deep sense of gratitude for those that stood by me during this wild ride and this message is to them: To Dr. Zizzi, no doubt, I got “lost in literature forest” or better said, “bathed” in it for far too long trying to create the perfect study, but you were always there to help me get out of my own way. You are my research mountain “sherpa”, the one that guided, encouraged, and at times, carried me through the rugged research terrain to reach the summit. Your charisma and wisdom are unmatched and with alternative rock music in the background, I can still hear your voice saying, “If you get lost in literature forest and no one hears your scream, then you’re in the right place.” My experience at WVU has been shaped by your example and approach to life. Your willingness to take me in as one of your adopted students these last two years has meant so much to me. You showed me what I am capable of and pushed me beyond my limits. I greatly appreciate your patience through thick and thin. Because of your mentorship, you gave me the “climbing anchors” needed to reach the top. I am indebted to you in more ways than you know. Thank you for believing in me. To my committee, I want to send my most sincere gratitude to Dr. Platt, Dr. Follmer, and Mr. Zundell who guided me through my dissertation. I leaned on you for guidance and direction at various points in the project. Your time, expertise, detailed feedback, and genuine care for my success amplified my project to a level I could not have reached on my own. Thank you for your unparalleled direction to reach this level of my academic career. To Dr. Barnicle, from my core, I want to say thank you for believing in me as your doctoral student. I would not be in this position today if it wasn’t for you and I know you were always in my corner. Certainly being admitted into this PhD program took a few attempts, but you gave me the opportunity to pursue my Ph.D. as your graduate student in the program, something that was absolutely outside of my control. I still remember receiving a phone call from you as I was walking through the lobby of the University of Utah hospital, offering me a place to work with you at West Virginia University. It was a memorable moment for me. I have learned many things from you, specifically the power of networking, building relationships, and the value of reversed planning to establish realistic goals with the end in mind. But most of all, your openness as a mentor has always helped me see the bigger picture and truly hunt for the good stuff. Thank you for believing in me and giving me the opportunity to make this dream become a reality. Once you opened the door, it was up to me to make it happen. To Dr. Watson, “The Giant” and legend of WVU SEP. As if by fate, I was very lucky to have you as my second mentor at WVU. I thought that the ship had sailed, but miraculously, I was able to receive your mentorship within a short period of time. You encouraged me to become a more effective researcher and consultant, assessing my perceptions and goals as a practitioner. You trusted in my abilities to succeed and gave me vital counsel that I needed at just the right iv time. You surgically analyzed my qualifying project redundancy, putting it in the place where it needed to be. I am very grateful for your mentorship and thoughtful advice throughout my time at WVU. Thank you for everything you helped me achieve. To Dr. Houlihan, Dr. Kampoff, and Dr. McAlarnen, you all showed me how to lean into research and acclimatize to the research grind. I can recall your advice that a masters thesis is similar to a “campfire” whereas the dissertation would be a “firestorm”. Fortunately, my masters thesis resembled more of a firestorm and prepared me for what was to come. At every turn, each of you played a critical role in my development as a researcher and consultant, providing me with many opportunities to grow. My heartfelt gratitude extends to you for your mentorship and instrumental influence in my work and personal growth. To my research team, Natalie, Alex W., Alex M., Adonté, Peyton, and Caitlin, I want to genuinely thank you for your dedication, effort, and willingness to work in the research trenches with me. I relied on each one of you on many occasions without much in return. You invested your time and abilities behind the scenes to bring this project into fruition, and each of you responded with great enthusiasm and insight when it was needed. I am forever grateful for your dedication to make this dissertation happen. To my SEP classmates, I am immensely grateful to each of you. Your support throughout this project kept me level-headed and grounded by reading drafts, reviewing slides, and listening to me conceptualize when I needed it the most. Specifically, my basecamp desk neighbors Lindsey and Hannah, thank you for your positivity and friendship. To my cohort, Kim, Diane, Suzanne, and Chip: My experience at WVU would not have been the same without you. I am grateful for your genuine friendship and memories that we built together these last few years. Our tight knit group and devotion to one another has been an enormous blessing, one that I know will continue to grow beyond WVU. You all mean so much to me, and it is an honor to be a part of the 2020 team. To my program mentor, Kevin, you sir have been my go-to “mountaineer guide” from my first interview week in 2019 crashing at your place to my dissertation completion. I am exceptionally grateful for your sincere care for me and my family from day one, making our years at WVU unforgettable. To Mom and Dad, your lifelong lessons continue to guide me wherever I go, in each endeavor I face. Your influence on me is immeasurable and I am grateful to be your son. You have taught me how to observe and serve (“seeing the need”), show kindness to all, uphold my integrity wherever I find myself, follow through with commitments, and embrace a deep love of work. With many more essential skills needed to lead a fulfilling life, you’ve equipped me with the ones required to enjoy and conquer challenges along the way. I love you both! To my siblings and in-laws: Over the last decade, you have all supported our academic journey across the country in different ways and provided guidance throughout. I have benefited greatly from your advice and wisdom (drawn from many movie quotes) in seeing what lies ahead. I am very blessed to have each one of you and your constant support, knowing that I can always turn to you for help. Everything is mucho nice! v To my boys, Jagger and Zane, you bring insurmountable joy and energy to my life. Being a father to you is unquestionably the greatest blessing I have and the most important role I have on this earth. Each day, you were my alarm clock, my morning sendoffs, my escape from the academic marathon, and my greeting party when I walked through the front door. Good days or bad, you both brought me a significant amount of joy that pushed me through the hardest of nights. Many ideas flowed as I’d rock you to sleep, and the dedication to see this project through came from your energy and smiling faces. To Lacey my words here cannot fully describe how much you mean to me and the love I have for you. You are my anchor, my harbor from the storm, my oasis amid the many moments of struggle in receiving this foundational accomplishment. Your unwavering support, love, and encouragement during all the breakthroughs and setbacks were significant sources of strength for me and I couldn’t have done any of this without you by my side. No doubt, balancing the demands of a decade-long grad school journey with the joys and challenges of raising our kids has been no small feat, yet we’ve grown together in more ways than I thought possible. Many early mornings, late nights, and sacrifices were given to see this through. You gave me the time and inspiration needed to achieve this goal. I am forever grateful to you and what we did together. I see this achievement is as much yours as it is mine. I love you! Above all, I am thankful for my Heavenly Father and Jesus Christ, who shaped me into the man I am today. They continue to provide me with significant comfort and peace in everything I do. With all of my inadequacies and limitations, I undoubtedly know that God has lifted me up in every moment under His watchful care. He knew where I needed to be and recognized that the many setbacks and disappointments leading up to this point provided me with a richer, more fulfilling experience in West Virginia. He renews my soul day-in and day-out and influences my life to transcend beyond my own capabilities. With Him guiding me, I am ready for the journey forward, confident that I will continue to learn and grow, just as a skilled rider learns to navigate new terrains. More is to come, and with each new challenge, I trust that He will be with me, securing my hands to the reins and guiding my steps no matter what unforeseeable horizon lies ahead. “I do not boast in my own strength, nor in my own wisdom; but behold, my joy is full, yea, my heart is brim with joy, and I will rejoice in my God. Yea, I know that I am nothing; as to my strength I am weak; therefore I will not boast of myself, but I will boast of my God, for in his strength I can do all things.” – Alma 26:11-12 vi Table of Contents Examining the Online Marketing of Sport Psychology Services by Certified Mental Performance Consultants: A Rhetorical Analysis.................................................................................................................1 Perceptions of Sport Psychology Services................................................................................................2 Online Marketing of Sport Psychology Services......................................................................................4 Persuasion and Online Marketing .............................................................................................................6 Significance...............................................................................................................................................8 Method ................................................................................................................................................................9 Research Design........................................................................................................................................9 Participants................................................................................................................................................9 Procedures............................................................................................................................................... 10 Coding and Agreement Procedure .......................................................................................................... 14 Data Analysis.......................................................................................................................................... 15 Results ...............................................................................................................................................................16 Demographics ......................................................................................................................................... 16 Online Platform Use................................................................................................................................ 17 Persuasive Elements................................................................................................................................ 17 Relationship Between Persuasive Elements and Demographic Factors ................................................. 18 Rhetorical Examples............................................................................................................................... 19 Discussion..........................................................................................................................................................22 Key Findings........................................................................................................................................... 23 Demographic Differences in CMPC Profiles of Persuasion ................................................................... 27 Limitations.............................................................................................................................................. 28 Future Directions .................................................................................................................................... 29 References.........................................................................................................................................................31 Appendix A.......................................................................................................................................................39 vii Appendix B .......................................................................................................................................................41 Tables.................................................................................................................................................................42 Extended Review of the Literature.................................................................................................................50 Receptivity and Perceptions of Sport Psychology Services.................................................................... 51 Online Marketing .................................................................................................................................... 53 Obstacles to CMPC Marketing ............................................................................................................... 55 Persuasion ............................................................................................................................................... 58 The Elevator Pitch................................................................................................................................... 60 Conclusion .............................................................................................................................................. 68 Extended References .......................................................................................................................................70 CMPC PERSUASION 1 Examining the Online Marketing of Sport Psychology Services by Certified Mental Performance Consultants: A Rhetorical Analysis Athletes, coaches, and athletic trainers increasingly use technological tools to amplify athlete effectiveness (Giblin et al., 2016) including virtual reality systems (Bird, 2020), wearable devices (Seshadri et al., 2019), and biofeedback training models (Dupee et al., 2016). Alongside these advancements in performance technology, the use of social media among athletes has also increased dramatically. Researchers recently found that student athletes interacted with their smartphones 4.5 hours per day (DesClouds et al., 2018). A follow-up study found that 81% of athletes interviewed had their smartphone nearby continually, largely used for social media, communication, and organization tasks (DesClouds et al., 2021). Not surprisingly, coaches and other sport personnel including Certified Mental Performance Consultants (CMPC) have noticed this rise in mobile device use among athletes in the locker room and off the playing field where athletes use these devices to develop relationships, distract oneself from sport pressures, or search for strategies to better prepare the athlete for performance. Encel et al. (2017) added to this trend showing that 68% of 300 British athletes checked their social media accounts within two hours of competition. Real life examples of athletes using social media to prepare for performance include gold medalists Simone Biles, Michael Phelps, and NBA champion Kevin Love. These athletes have used online platforms to openly talk about their psychological struggles to normalize mental health and mental performance training. In addition, “Mind Health” (NBA), “Player Health and Safety” (NFL), “Unmind” (MLB), and the “NHL Player Assistance Program” were created to provide greater physical and psychological well-being to athletes on devices (Jia et al., 2022). Sport psychology consultants (SPCs) have become aware of these transformations within the sport environment on the digital front, particularly with the CMPC PERSUASION 2 introduction and implication of smartphone apps. The literature notes that sport psychology apps have been around for nearly 20 years (Cotterill & Symes, 2014; Prior, 2014), and the use of such apps have been linked with improved mental skills. For instance, Stenzel and colleagues (2021) found significant increases in concentration and self-efficacy, and more frequent recovery after implementing a sport psychology app intervention to 44 athletes. SPCs have taken note of these influences at play, particularly after the Covid-19 pandemic (Gretton et al., 2022) as it provided opportunities for SPCs to reach more athletes virtually. Social media has also facilitated the messaging and broadcasting of sport psychology services to the consumer, making mental skills training more accessible. It is possible that the expanded use of technology in sport psychology has reduced the stigma of mental health and increased awareness of mental health and performance issues. It is not surprising that consulting work—once a face-to-face endeavor—has now turned into a hybrid arrangement where inperson or remote consultations co-exist (Cotterill & Symes, 2014). Using these asynchronous methods, SPCs are then tasked with communicating their messages to potential consumers interested in sport psychology services and maintain the connection to benefit the athlete’s overall play. Perceptions of Sport Psychology Services Research shows that most sport personnel (e.g., athletes, coaches, athletic directors, athletic trainers, strength and conditioning coaches) have a positive outlook on sport psychology (SP) services (Fortin-Guichard et al., 2018), particularly when services improve athlete performance and when sport psychology consultants (SPCs) have strong interpersonal skills to connect with others. One study showed that coaches were receptive to sport psychology providers who developed trust in the consultant and believed the SPC was a beneficial asset to CMPC PERSUASION 3 the team (Sheehy et al., 2019). This feeling of trust was corroborated by other studies showing that trust is a strong element of persuasion within interpersonal relationships (Farhat et al., 2022; Isai et al., 2020). There are several SPC characteristics that influence perceptions and decision-making when choosing a SPC. A recent systematic review by Woolway and Harwood (2020) analyzed 17 studies totaling 2962 participants to determine what SPC characteristics affected participant perceptions and decision-making when choosing a SPC. They reported that athletes preferred having SPCs with similar physical and demographic characteristics to them (e.g., age, gender, physical appearance). In addition, interpersonal skills and accreditation were shown to be important characteristics as well. Such findings resembled Lubker et al.’s (2008) study supporting the idea that college athletes and SPCs preferred similar characteristics (e.g., sport culture, sport knowledge, and athletic background) in consultation practices. Similarly, researchers have sought to gain an understanding of what sport psychology consultants do to attract and maintain clients from different sports, motives, and age groups. In one study, researchers found that college athletes (n = 464) preferred consultants with an advanced degree and refined interpersonal skills (Lubker et al., 2012). Moreover, being an expert, showing genuine care for athletes, and having a strong knowledge base of the sport (e.g., terms, rules, and jargon) increased a consultant’s perceived value in this study. Another systematic review explored stakeholder perceptions of SPC characteristics by analyzing 33 qualitative-focused articles (Tod et al., 2022). These researchers found that the stakeholders wanted SPCs to build strong rapport, display “realness,” instill hope, set expectations, promote client change, and be able to operate well in the client’s location. These CMPC PERSUASION 4 findings provide insight into what athletes and coaches expect to see in an effective SPC and can be used to further advance the field, particularly through technological means. Online Marketing of Sport Psychology Services In the last decade, social media platforms have emerged as the go-to places for online engagement and communication, enabling individuals to interact easily with each other (Adeola et al., 2020). Marketers and advertisers have taken advantage of this concept to promote their products; however, little evidence shows how Certified Mental Performance Consultants (CMPC) use online platforms to connect and promote their brand to meet the needs of the consumer. Baxter and Smith (2017) explained this lack of marketing ability and recommended that CMPCs implement two forms of marketing to promote their services by implementing active and passive marketing. Active marketing focuses on establishing direct contact with potential clientele by leveraging existing relationships, direct messaging, cold calling, and networking at specific events. Passive marketing suggests building a reputation where potential clients contact the consultant based on word of mouth, referrals, and advertisements. Within these strategies, Baxter and Smith (2017) encouraged SPCs to create a professional website to educate individuals about sport psychology and their expertise to establish authenticity with the potential buyer. The Association for Applied Sport Psychology (AASP) has also provided an online platform for potential clients to connect with consultants to connect with the general public in their local area, but no data exists if the general public uses this website to find consultants (AASP, 2023a). Data publicly available through the Association for Applied Sport Psychology, may fill this gap for certified SPCs, but dissemination of this information is limited within the marketing framework. Despite Baxter and Smith’s (2017) recommendations, Waite and colleagues (2021) affirmed the need for better marketing strategies in their study when examining Olympic track and field CMPC PERSUASION 5 athletes, many of whom were unfamiliar with sport psychology services and accessibility. These authors acknowledged that an online consultant profile would help address the limited knowledge consumers have about SP and establish a means of communication among the athletes. Participants within this study suggested that embracing different online forms of communication would be helpful for both parties (i.e., the consultant and the athlete), especially if the website included the CMPCs bio, sport knowledge and background, and contact information for obtaining services. Such an approach may clear an athlete’s unfamiliarity with the services provided, as different platforms have different ways to deliver SPC messages. Specifically, a study analyzing how the Twitter platform is used to communicate with athletes and other practitioners found that the content of SPC tweets focused on media comments (e.g., TV programs, news stories), advice and opinion, thoughts on events, self-promotion, knowledge dissemination, and lifestyle (Cotterill, 2022). CMPCs identified that social media presence had a positive impact on their work based on feedback from others. More than 60% of the SPCs used a professional social media account to connect with athletes, yet surprisingly, more than half (52%) did not engage in professional conversations on the platform. Some professionals indicated they felt unskilled at using social media most effectively or feared of putting themselves at risk in terms of privacy and not being aligned with ethical standards provided by their governing body (e.g., AASP, BASES). Cotterill (2022) indicated that SPCs expressed a desire to deliver information of value to alter thinking or behavior—a distinctive characteristic of persuasion. Research has yet to explore how CMPCs are intentionally attempting to educate or persuade potential clients in a particular way. Therefore, it would be beneficial to examine the elements of persuasion and how these elements show up in SPC work. CMPC PERSUASION 6 To better understand how SPCs use online marketing, theories of persuasion can be applied to identify ways SP services are being delivered. Other research analyzed the engagement of SPCs on social media to find it if was a consultant to understand their perceptions of professional use of social media (Cotterill, 2022). The findings showed that more than 60% of SPCs used a professional social media account to connect with athletes, but 52% did not engage in professional conversations on the social media platform. The professionals in the study cited several factors limiting their engagement, including, a lack of social media competency, a fear of putting themselves at risk, and not being aligned with ethical standards. Research has yet to explore how CMPCs intentionally attempt to bridge the gap, and for that reason, it would be beneficial to examine the persuasive strategies used in online platforms of credentialed sport psychology professionals. Persuasion and Online Marketing Persuasive communication is used online to influence their decision-making process (Hong et al., 2020). Descriptive elements, shown through Rhetorical Theory, help explain the content of what is taking place, why the persuader chooses specific language to convey a message, and how such choices influence people. Three important markers of persuasion are regularly explained in scientific literature to influence people, which include ethos, pathos, and logos that appeal to persuading someone in a certain way (Leach, 2000). Ethos arguments appeal to the credibility or trustworthiness of the source, whether the message is delivered from an expert or reliable source. Pathos-based arguments use emotions to stir up a response and logos appeals to logic, whether it is real or perceived, to convey a specific convincing message. One sport psychology study addressed the principles above in outlining a persuasive elevator pitch by describing a rhetorical scenario. In his example, Simpson (2016) explained that a SPC may write CMPC PERSUASION 7 a persuasive message by integrating specific examples of ethos, pathos, and logos in brief marketing form to give practitioners a starting point for marketing their services. However, this publication was not data-based but rather a commentary offering a practical solution for young professionals to improve their marketing. Embedded underneath these three elements that promote good rhetorical positioning, statis theory and the five canons of rhetoric (e.g., invention, arrangement, style, memory, and delivery) are described as important drivers in viable persuasive communication (Leach, 2000). Statis theory is a rhetorical method that helps decide what is the point of a persuasive message, position, and effort to bring people with various opinions to a state of agreeableness or stability. Statis theory uses reflective questions to gather the facts, definitions, quality (good/bad/fair/unfair), and actions to examine what each person thinks about a specific issue (Carter, 1988). The five canons of rhetoric begin with invention, which is the act of brainstorming the message which leads to arrangement or the process of deciding how the content will be organized. Next, style is used to demonstrate how the words will be incorporated through tone, pace, and word choice. Style may also integrate metaphors and analogies to amplify description. Memory indicates the process of committing a certain topic to memory to draw upon when needed and delivery is the action of presenting a message to an audience. Although research in sport psychology has not evaluated consultant marketing directly through the lens of ethos, pathos, and logos, other fields have examined such rhetorical elements in online settings. A recent study found that all three persuasive appeals were used in higher education recruitment websites to influence students and parents (Oeppen Hill, 2020), particularly ethos which was extensively used. Research in business has focused on the importance of persuasion, much of it rooted in the work of Cialdini (2001) who identified six CMPC PERSUASION 8 principles of persuasion that can be connected to online influences—reciprocity, consistency, social proof, authority, liking, and scarcity. To provide context, reciprocity suggests that people are instinctively drawn towards returning favors. An example would be a CMPC offering a 10% discount or free handout when a consumer subscribes to their webpage. Next, people are persuaded by consistency and stability. A CMPC following through with their commitments or keeping promises are examples of consistency. Social proof means that people follow what others do. For instance, persuasion comes from sharing testimonials from successful athletes, coaches, or athletic directors elevated credibility. Exposure to positive testimonials can be associated with greater intentions to use cognitive services (Apolinário-Hagen et al., 2021). Persuasion is increased when paired with authority, specifically represented through an earned credential or graduate degrees or licenses. Next, people are persuaded by things they like. Therefore, liking sport psychology or having a shared interest by the way a CMPC applies mental skills can fortify a consumer buy-in, especially if this service is perceived to be popular or used by athletes they know. Lastly, people are persuaded to act when they believe resources are scarce. In online marketing, CMPCs can use messages to project scarcity by using phrases such as “limited time offers” or “two spots left on webinar” to urge consumers to make decisions. Significance No research to date has explored how CMPCs use these persuasive messaging strategies that stem from Leach (2000) and Cialdini (2001) in the online marketing space. Many CMPCs use social media to educate consumers and to promote their services, but little research has explored the quality of its content. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the persuasive messaging of online content created by Certified Mental Performance Consultants to attract CMPC PERSUASION 9 potential clientele. Social media platforms and professional websites provide a virtual tool for consultants to showcase their work and promote the field of sport and performance psychology to others. • Research Question 1: What online platforms are most used by CMPCs to attract potential consumers to sport psychology services? • Research Question 2: What are the persuasive components that CMPCs use to promote their messaging of sport psychology services? Method Research Design This descriptive study used a Rhetorical Analysis to assess the persuasive features and strategies of language used by CMPCs to market their sport psychology services. Researchers implemented this approach to capture key persuasive concepts (i.e., ethos, pathos, and logos; Leach, 2000) and Cialdini’s (2001) principles of persuasion (e.g., reciprocity, consistency, social proof, authority, liking, and scarcity) to understand what persuasive components are found in CMPC online messaging. These persuasive elements included reciprocity, consistency, social proof, authority, liking, and scarcity. Participants Certified Mental Performance Consultants (CMPCs) were selected as the target population of this study as this is the most widely recognized North American credential in the sport psychology field. A list of CMPCs was drawn from the Association for Applied Sport Psychology (AASP) organizational website representing 1004 active CMPCs (as of December 2023). Under the AASP standard, a CMPC must obtain formal education and at least 400 hours of mentored experience, pass a standardized certification exam, and receive a formal board CMPC PERSUASION 10 review (AASP, 2023a). Publicly available data on the AASP “Find a Consultant” interface was used to compile the list of CMPCs in this study and record demographic and social media information for each individual consultant. Procedures Since the data in this study was contained on public websites, no Institutional Review Board (IRB) approval was necessary. Procedures were conducted in three phases to identify eligibility, demographics, and persuasive strategies found. Phase I – Identifying Eligible CMPCs & Available Social Media Profiles In Phase I, the researchers collected all CMPC profiles (n = 1004), demographic information, and social media accounts registered under each CMPC profile using the “Find a CMPC” icon. These CMPC profiles were added to a cloud-based spreadsheet for easy access and research team collaboration. The social media platforms recorded included the consultants: 1) professional webpage; 2) LinkedIn; 3) Facebook; 4) Twitter/X; and 5) Instagram. Research team members were selected and trained individually by the lead researcher on how to enter these different platforms and record specific information within the CMPC profile such as: 1) year certified (1992, 1993, ... 2023), 2) level of education (master’s degree/ doctoral degree), and 3) licensed counselor or psychologist (Yes/No). This task helped determine the overall scope and range of professionals in the CMPC population. Gender identity was not available in the AASP CMPC profile, and therefore was not captured. Phase II – Descriptive Analysis of CMPC Demographics & Profile Eligibility The aim of Phase II was to discover what online platforms were most used by CMPCs to attract potential consumers to sport psychology services and identify a subsample of CMPCs to more closely examine their persuasive approach in marketing their services. This process CMPC PERSUASION 11 revealed that the professional website (n = 388) and LinkedIn (n = 408) online platforms were the two most used platforms among CMPCs. To narrow the complexity of examining all five online platforms, the decision was made to explore consultants in possession of both a professional website and LinkedIn account as the focus of the rhetorical analysis for Phase III. This decision reduced the target CMPC population to 219 consultants. Phase III – Rhetorical Analysis of Content The goal of Phase III was to analyze the persuasive elements found in the selected CMPCs (n = 219) professional websites and LinkedIn profiles. The written content found in the professional websites were copied from each main webpage and service-related tabs (e.g., ‘Home’, ‘Services’, ‘About’, ‘Our Team’, etc.) onto an Excel spreadsheet. These website tabs were selected because they represented the CMPCs marketing structure and style in how they described who they were, what they do, and how sport psychology services will benefit their consumers. Other professional website text promoting CMPC services was also captured including testimonials, customer reviews, subscriptions, discounts, and free material for purposes of identifying persuasive material. Next, the LinkedIn content captured for each CMPC contained information in the “About” section, number of “Active Followers”, the consultants highest “Education” level (master’s/doctorate), and evidence of being a licensed/psychologist found in the “Licenses & Certifications” section. The collection of written content from these two platforms was performed solely by the lead researcher to minimize research team mistakes and establish a standard database for the research team to code. Following the data extraction from the professional websites and LinkedIn profiles, the lead researcher created a persuasion codebook based on Leach’s (2000) Rhetorical Analysis principles and Cialdini’s (2001) Six CMPC PERSUASION 12 Principles of Persuasion to train and guide the research team during the coding process (see Appendix A). Training the Research Team. Four college-level undergraduate research team members were recruited and trained using the Persuasion Codebook (Appendix A) and the Persuasion Codebook Checklist (Appendix B) during several in-person training sessions. Next, ten practice CMPC profiles were purposefully selected and distributed among the team members (e.g., lead researcher and four research team members) to code. The first two CMPCs were coded collectively and then the remaining eight were coded individually to establish an operational baseline for coding comprehension among team members. Specifically, the team navigated the Excel spreadsheet for all written content previously extracted, then after, entered the two online platforms to record subtle persuasive instances that would appear on the website such as subscription buttons, testimonial paragraphs, free materials, and automatic pop-up discounts for other persuasive elements. The lead researcher personally reviewed the initial ten CMPCs collected by the research team. After this first step, the research team met to address data troubleshooting, coding discrepancies, and volume of subtle persuasive element differences. These meetings led to a revision of the Persuasion Codebook to help clarify definitions, locate areas on the online platforms rich with content, and specify how multiple testimonials, customer reviews, and subscription invitations would be counted. Clarifications were made regarding the concepts of Ethos vs. Authority and Pathos vs. Liking as they were identified as problematic due to the difficulty distinguishing these persuasive elements from one another. For instance, to differentiate ethos and authority, team members categorized these elements based on the specific time where the credibility of ethos represented a past form of credibility and authority represented a present form of credibility. Specifically, ethos statements were identified as a past CMPC PERSUASION 13 form of credibility as described through years of experience, former accolades (e.g., “national champion”, “best-selling author”), high quality sport resume (e.g., “former Olympian, college athlete, or coach”), or expertise in a specific research area. Authority statements were identified as a present form of credibility based on the consultant’s current educational or employment status (e.g., PhD, CMPC, CEO, licensed psychologist) or official title (e.g., “Dr. _____”, “Director of Mental Performance”, “Associate professor”). In the case of Pathos and Liking, pathos was identified as an emotional phrase used to draw out emotion in people. Examples included statements such as “dream big” or “chase your goals”. Liking was identified as a shared interest by the CMPC to seem more human (e.g., “My first love was basketball”, “We’re in this together”, “I’m passionate about building a strong mind”). It was noted that coders were not to decide whether the message appealed to their personal emotions or shared interest but coded based on the CMPCs attempt to connect to a potential client through their messaging. Critical dialogue during these meetings clarified such persuasion elements and provided transparency throughout the data collection process. After examining the initial ten CMPCs and adjusting the Persuasion Codebook, the lead researcher selected one model CMPC profile with numerous persuasive strategies to teach and demonstrate a good example of where to find persuasive elements, what to count and not to count, and how messages can be interpreted in the foreseeable online platforms. Once understood and thoroughly reviewed by the team, ten more profiles were selected and distributed to evaluate the persuasive elements and the coders’ proficiency after revising the Persuasive Codebook. Two profiles were coded as a group to identify any remaining coding discrepancies and clarity of persuasive elements. Once the team agreed, each team member coded eight CMPCs individually and areas of uncertainty were resolved by the research team until the coding CMPC PERSUASION 14 results reached conformity. No revisions to the Persuasion Codebook were made after the 21st CMPC was coded, representative of the ten percent CMPC sub-sample. Lastly, the development of a rating system was established to maintain inter-rater reliability for each persuasive element. The inter-rater reliability for the first 21 CMPCs followed the agreement of four coders and finally the lead researcher as the final coder. For example, the identification of a persuasive element in a CMPC profile was agreed upon when at least 3 of 4 coders would agree (75% agreement or better) determined it existed in a specific message (Cohen, 1968; Hemmler et al., 2022). When coders reached a split consensus suggesting 2 of 4 coders agreed, the lead researcher would act as the final coder to override the presence (or absence) of the persuasive element. This logic remained consistent throughout the training coding process but was slightly modified when the research team was split into pairs to code the remaining CMPCs. Coding and Agreement Procedure The lead researcher separated the four-person research team into two pairs to analyze the remaining sub-sample of CMPCs (n = 198), thus creating a double coding process for each profile. Each pair was assigned to code half of the remaining CMPC profiles (n = 99) individually to cross check the presence of persuasive elements, reduce bias, minimize coding fatigue, and ensure data entry was consistent. The lead researcher coded all 198 CMPCs to establish a master code index used to override any disagreements when necessary. An agreement/disagreement procedure was formed to report persuasive elements that appeared in the CMPC profiles. Specifically in pairs, when the code of both team members aligned, shown by 2 Yes’s or 2 No’s, the persuasive element was marked “present” or “not present” in the spreadsheet. This uniformity between the two coders overruled the lead researcher’s master code CMPC PERSUASION 15 even if the lead researcher identified the opposite code of the specified persuasive element. When the team members split with 1 Yes and 1 No, the master code index of the lead researcher consequently resolved the discrepancy in the direction of the lead researcher’s code. The completion of coding 198 CMPCs by the research team yielded a total of 3564 decisions made per research team member (post-training) with 455 decisions being resolved by the lead researcher. Calculated from the mean, an agreement rating was reached by the research team at 87.24%, suggesting that 12.76% of the decisions were resolved by the lead researcher based on definitions within the code book. Furthermore, the research team agreement on each element indicated the following: ethos (78.5%), pathos (78.0%), logos (89.9%), reciprocity (94.7%), commitment/consistency (86.9%), social proof (89.4%), authority (89.4%), liking (84.8%), and scarcity (99%). Data Analysis To answer research question one, the descriptive statistics found in Phase I and Phase II were calculated from the total population of CMPCs (n = 1004) to measure what percentage of CMPCs used the specific five online social media platforms. At this stage, the researcher calculated the mean and standard deviation in “years since certification” for the entire sample, and the percentage of the overall sample with an MA//MSW/MEd/MS (“master’s”) vs. PsyD/PhD/EdD (“doctoral”) degree. These demographic analyses were repeated in the subsample of CMPCs profiles in the rhetorical analysis. To answer research question two, the researcher presented summary data on the percentage of profiles that contained each of the nine persuasive elements, and the mean number of instances of each element for the entire sub-sample. This portion of the analysis provided an overview of the most common persuasive elements present in the written content provided by the CMPC PERSUASION 16 CMPCs. Example quotes connected to each of the persuasive elements were highlighted showing the most common ways that CMPCs attempted to persuade clients to use their services on these two platforms. Within these examples, the research team made attempts to represent the diverse ways that CMPCs used each persuasive element. As this study was exploratory, the lead researcher examined the relationship with three demographic variables collected (years since certification, level of education, and licensed/psychologist status “yes/no”) and the presence or absence of each persuasive element. To address the connection with years since certification, independent t-tests were conducted by analyzing each persuasive component individually, with each persuasive element (as the Independent Variable) and the mean years certified (as the Dependent Variable). Data was checked for normality and equal variances prior to conducting the analyses, and Cohen’s d was calculated to show the effect size for each mean comparison. To investigate if each persuasive component was associated with level of education (Master’s vs. Doctoral) and Licensure (Yes/No), a chi-square (two-way) test of independence was performed separately for each of the nine persuasive components (present or absent). Results Demographics Of the 219 CMPCs examined in Phase III, 89 (40.6%) were master’s level CMPCs and 130 (59.4%) were doctoral level CMPCs. Between 2019-2023, 69 (31.5%) were master’s level CMPCs and 62 (28.3%) were doctoral level CMPCs. Fifty-five (25.1%) CMPCs were clinically licensed or designated psychologists with 29 (52.7%) of 55 CMPCs obtaining CMPC status since 2019. The level of education combined with licensure indicated that 15 (16.9%) master’s level CMPCs obtained clinical licensure and 40 (30.8%) doctoral level CMPCs had clinical licensure. CMPC PERSUASION 17 What stands out in this finding shows that doctoral level CMPCs are nearly twice as likely to be licensed compared to master’s level CMPCs with the presence of LinkedIn and a professional website. Moving to years since certification, the Phase I data of 1004 CMPCs demonstrated that the acquisition of the CMPC credential had increased within the last decade (M = 4.63, SD = 5.84) with 667 (66.4%) new CMPCs from 2019 to 2023. Based on the AASP CMPC country of origin, 846 (84.3%) were listed from the United States, 103 (10.3%) from Canada, and 55 (5.5%) from other countries. Online Platform Use Approximately 2/3 (64.2%) of all active CMPCs had at least one form of social media platform connected to their profile, with LinkedIn (40.6%) and professional website (38.6%) as the most common forms of marketing of services. Instagram (13.4%) and Facebook (11%) covered the least amount of use in terms of sport psychology online marketing whereas Twitter (X) accounted for 205 (20.4%) CMPCs. Within the last five years of the total CMPCs being certified, 270 (26.8%) had LinkedIn, 223 (22.2%) had a professional website, 97 (9.6%) had Twitter (X), 97 (9.6%) had Instagram, and 60 (5.9%) had Facebook. On average, the number of LinkedIn followers of the overall sample was 440 followers per CMPC and the subsample was 1319 followers per CMPC. Persuasive Elements Overall, the study generated several findings that indicated CMPCs attempting to be persuasive in their online written content, intentionally or not. First, the CMPCs appeal to credibility and expertise was identified as the most common form of persuasion with ethos appearing in 82.6% of the profiles (M = 0.83, SD = .379) and authority appearing in 83.6% of the profiles (M = 0.84, SD = .371). Authority was often represented by the CMPC including their CMPC PERSUASION 18 credentials (e.g., PhD, CMPC, PsyD, etc.) and current job status, whereas ethos represented years of experience in the field and former areas of credibility. Second, pathos was represented in 72.1% of the profiles (M = 0.72, SD = .449), marking emotional appeal as a common persuasive element used, with liking shown to be present in 37% of the profiles (M = 0.37, SD = 0.483). Third, social proof was associated with client recommendations and past service experiences, such as testimonials and customer reviews. Social proof appeared in 30.1% of the profiles (M = 0.30, SD = .459). Fourth, commitment/consistency was found within 29.7% of profiles (M = 0.30, SD = .457) with persuasive elements created to keep potential consumers engaged on their professional website or LinkedIn. Fifth, reciprocity, or the exchange of CMPC resources for consumer engagement (e.g., discounts, deals, free materials), appeared in 26% (M = 0.26, SD = .439) of profiles. Consultants offering a free initial consultation was the most common strategy observed. Logos and scarcity were the least used persuasive elements with 8.7% (M = 0.87, SD = .282) and 0% respectively. Table 1 provides the results obtained from the analysis of persuasive elements. Relationship Between Persuasive Elements and Demographic Factors Independent samples t-tests and chi-squared analyses were conducted to examine potential differences between persuasive elements and demographic factors. Prior to the t-tests, years since certification was assessed for normality and skewness, and the data were non-normal (skewnessz = 7.87; kurtosisz = 4.13). Due to this violation of normality, the non-parametric equivalent tests were run for each element (Mann-Whitney U). These analyses showed no significant difference in the years since certification and the presence of any rhetorical element. There were some interesting patterns with logos and reciprocity data, however, large variability (error) obscured the potential for statistical significance. Table 2 shows an overview of these CMPC PERSUASION 19 results. Chi-squared tests were performed to examine if there was a significant relationship between the CMPCs level of education (Master’s vs. Doctoral) and licensure status (yes and no) with the nine persuasive elements. The results indicated four persuasive elements were associated with one of these variables with small effects. For instance, there was a significant small effect for reciprocity with level of education (χ2(n = 219, df = 1) = 4.59, p = 0.032, φ = .145). Those with Master’s degrees were more likely to have reciprocity within their marketing. Furthermore, there was a small effect for social proof with level of education (χ2(n = 219, df = 1) = 5.64, p = 0.031, φ = .145) suggesting that those with Master’s degrees were more likely to have elements of social proof throughout their online platforms. Next, there was a small significant effect for both authority with licensure (χ2(n = 219, df = 1) = 5.48, p = 0.034, φ = .143), and social proof with licensure (χ2(n = 219, df = 1) = 5.64, p = 0.026, φ = .151). These findings indicated that CMPCs who were licensed were more likely to show elements of authority but not social proof in their online content. There were other persuasive elements that were interesting but were not shown to be significant. The summary statistics for this data between persuasive statistics and licensure are stated in table 3 and table 4. Rhetorical Examples The research team identified qualitative examples of each persuasive element generated from the CMPC professional website and LinkedIn. The examples were drawn verbatim from the CMPC profiles. Such content was coded as an attempt made by the CMPC to persuade their services toward prospective clientele and not assessed based on the effectiveness of each message. Ethos: The appeal of credibility, trust, character, and reputation of a skilled expert. CMPC PERSUASION 20 Example 1. “A dynamic speaker and expert steeped in the science of human performance, she works with Fortune 500 companies, accomplished athletes, organizational leaders, and anyone else striving to achieve their greatest ambitions.” Example 2. “Utilizing research-tested techniques and technology to boost performance for athletes, performers, and business professionals at all levels, I have worked in the sport and performance field as a coach, educator, trainer, athlete, and consultant for more than 20 years.” Pathos: The appeal of emotions, values, and imagination of the listener. Example 1. “What mountains are you currently climbing? Whether it's the corporate or athletic field, the biggest battle we have is the one against ourselves. I help people get out of their own way and conquer their own personal mountain. Well, I am here to say that LIFE and SPORT don't have to feel like such a grind! YOU can take ACTION and get back to what matters most. It’s not a lack of talent, skill, or will that keep people from reaching their true potential. It’s a failure to understand and align all the factors—mental, physical, emotional, and psychological—that underpin true excellence.” Example 2. “You're an athlete. We know you're dedicated, and we know you're committed to being your best. We also know that no two athletes are the same. From your training regimen to the tradeoffs you make, to the pressures and expectations that surround you—this is your unique journey to become the best athlete you can be. Our mission is simple— to help every athlete take their performance to the next level.” Logos: The appeal of reason, order, and logic toward the listener. Example 1. “Here are some general statistics on sport psychology therapy: 34-45% Elite athletes experiencing mental health challenges. [2016 journal article cited], 10-20% Athletes experiencing symptoms of burnout during their career. [2004 journal article cited], 50% NCAA CMPC PERSUASION 21 athletes that feel comfortable seeking support from a licensed mental health provider on campus. [2023 journal article cited] 65-75%, Athletes experiencing psychological distress during injury rehabilitation. [Brewer, B. W., & Petrie, T. A. (2014)]” Reciprocity: A self-imposed sentiment that people feel instinctively drawn towards returning favors or repaying obligations as a means to restore balance. Example 1. “I’m offering a free 30-minute phone consultation to give you an opportunity to speak with me to get a sense of my approach.” Commitment/Consistency: A persuasive strategy used to encourage prolonged engagement with a specific behavior that speaks to a person’s values and self-interests. Example 1. “Click here to read more about what Mental Skills Training is and how it can help you perform at your best!” Example 2. “Learn more below or contact a [CMPC] professional to determine the service that is right for you.” Social Proof: People do things that they see other people do and will look for direction and social reinforcement to support that behavior. Example 1. “Dr. [CMPC] showed me a different perspective that was practical and made sense. His approach helped me place at the World Championships and later qualify for the Olympics. I could not have done it without his help!” Example 2. “Dr. [CMPC] was there throughout my college and NFL career and was a big reason I made it to the NFL to live out my dream. He gets players back on track so they can get back to doing what they do best!” Authority: People will follow the lead of credible and knowledgeable experts depending on their initial impression and presence. CMPC PERSUASION 22 Example 1. “I am a licensed psychologist with a Ph.D. in Counseling Psychology.” Example 2. "[CMPC] is the author of the Amazon Best Seller, [book title], an awardwinning speaker and host of the top-rated podcast which has over 2 million+ downloads in more than 120 countries worldwide.” Example 3. “I am Dr. [CMPC], a Clinical and Sport Psychologist licensed in [State 1] (License #), [State 2] (License #), [State 3] (License #), and [State 4] (License #).” Liking: Sharing similar interests and authenticity to engage the listener. Example 1. “Through my own athletic endeavors and roadblocks, I witnessed firsthand how important my own psychology played a role in my ability to compete to my full potential. Whether you are trying to improve your sport performance or are facing any number of personal struggles, I will provide you with compassionate, genuine, and dedicated care.” Scarcity: The belief that certain resources are limited or in short supply which influences the consumer to want services more. Example 1. “[Screen Pop Up]: Please note the [consultant] practice is currently full. We are not accepting new clients until May 2024.” Table 5 depicts more examples of persuasive elements shown in the CMPC subsample. Although this study did not look directly into the number of common phrases used, many profiles did include a form of a mission statement and declaration stating that the CMPC would customize their services based on the needs of the client. Additionally, other common phrases mirror that of, “My practice is grounded in helping people achieve their goals and live meaningful lives” and interpreted through the nine elements of persuasion. Discussion The purpose of this study was to determine the persuasive messaging of CMPCs and their CMPC PERSUASION 23 use of online platforms to attract potential clientele. The findings of this study illustrated that two-thirds of CMPCs had at least one form of social media attached to their AASP profile, most profiles favoring LinkedIn and a professional website platform. Another major finding was that authority, ethos, and pathos were the most prominent persuasive components used in the subsample of CMPCs applying online strategies to market their services. Key Findings In connection with the presence of authority and ethos in CMPC profiles, previous research has highlighted the importance of exhibiting one’s professional status to consumers (Lubker et al., 2012). These persuasive elements were displayed through the CMPCs’ description of their advanced degrees, years of experience, job titles, accreditation and licensure from specific governing organizations, former playing or coaching experiences, and work carried out with well-known teams or athletes in performance environments. The elements of authority and ethos were close in meaning as previously identified by other sources in persuasive literature (Braca & Dondio, 2023; Rabab’ah et al., 2024), often occurring in tandem in a CMPC profile. For instance, a common sentence structure seen throughout many profiles that included authority and ethos resembled the statement: “Dr. Jones is a licensed clinical psychologist [present; authority] with 20 years of experience [past; ethos] working with high performing athletes and teams, specializing in the latest research of mental skills to help individuals reach their potential [past/present]”. Forms of authority and ethos appeared in the same way to support one’s credibility towards its consumers as many profiles showed their professional expertise upfront by using advanced degrees and titles such as “Ph.D., Associate Professor, Certified Mental Performance Consultant, or Owner of [consulting practice] LLC.” These findings of authority and ethos aligned well with other persuasive-centered studies in business, academia, CMPC PERSUASION 24 and cyber security as researchers found that authority and ethos were popular approaches to invoke feelings of trust to a wide range of individuals (Akbar, 2014; Oeppen Hill et al., 2020; Rabab’ah et al., 2024). It is also possible that consultants used authority and ethos in their messaging because they sense that potential clients will view them more favorably. Specifically, researchers have noted that positive impressions can be made w