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Coaching life skills through sport: An application of the teaching personal and social responsibility model to youth sport in eSwatini Coaching life skills through sport: An application of the teaching personal and social responsibility model to youth sport in eSwatini Zenzi Huysmans zehuysmans@mix.wvu.edu Follow this and additional works at: https://researchrepository.wvu.edu/etd Part of the Other Psychology Commons, and the Sports Studies Commons Recommended Citation Huysmans, Zenzi, "Coaching life skills through sport: An application of the teaching personal and social responsibility model to youth sport in eSwatini" (2018). Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports. 3717. https://researchrepository.wvu.edu/etd/3717 This Dissertation is protected by copyright and/or related rights. It has been brought to you by the The Research Repository @ WVU with permission from the rights-holder(s). You are free to use this Dissertation in any way that is permitted by the copyright and related rights legislation that applies to your use. For other uses you must obtain permission from the rights-holder(s) directly, unless additional rights are indicated by a Creative Commons license in the record and/ or on the work itself. This Dissertation has been accepted for inclusion in WVU Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports collection by an authorized administrator of The Research Repository @ WVU. For more information, please contact researchrepository@mail.wvu.edu. Coaching life skills through sport: An application of the teaching personal and social responsibility model to youth sport in eSwatini Zenzi Huysmans, M.S. Dissertation submitted to the College of Physical Activity and Sport Sciences at West Virginia University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctorate of Philosophy in Kinesiology with a Major in Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology Sport and Exercise Psychology Damien Clement, Ph.D., Chair Sam Zizzi, Ed.D. Christiaan Abildso, Ph.D., MPH Meredith Whitley Ph.D., Adelphi University Department of Sport Sciences Morgantown, West Virginia 2018 Keywords: youth development, life skills, coaching, teaching personal and social responsibility model, eSwatini Copyright 2018 Zenzi Huysmans Abstract Coaching life skills through sport: An application of the teaching personal and social responsibility model to youth sport in eSwatini Zenzi Huysmans Adolescence is a formative developmental period where youth learn the life skills and values needed to become compassionate and civically-engaged young people and navigate increasingly challenging global environments. Youth in eSwatini face major context-specific challenges that impede their healthy development as well as limited engagement with government initiatives intended to support their development. This feasibility study aimed to employ youth sport as a creative and engaging context to facilitate life skills development in underprivileged youth in eSwatini. Specifically, this study explored the youth participation experiences, positive youth outcomes, and implementation successes and challenges of a sport program for underprivileged youth in a community in eSwatini. The sport program was designed using the teaching personal and social responsibility (TPSR) model, which is a well-established instructional model for life skills education through sport. Although this model had been widely applied in Western contexts, the current study explored how the model might operate differently in a non-Western context where youth face different developmental challenges. An intervention design was employed to implement a three-week sport program for youth in a small community in the Lobamba region of eSwatini. Local coaches were the primary implementers of the program and participants were youth (N=33), aged 11-15 years old, who attended the grade six and seven literacy development afternoon club at a community-based children’s organization. Findings from the current feasibility study provided further support for the value of using the TPSR framework in the design and implementation of sport-based life skills education programming in a novel youth context in eSwatini. The focus of the model on building caring coach-youth relationships, creating an enjoyable sport experience, fostering small successes, and providing intentional opportunities for youth to actively practice and engage in their own learning were the most meaningful elements of the model in the current youth context. The developmental outcomes and changes in life skills associated with participation in the current program may also be highly pertinent to helping youth navigate the most salient health and resource challenges in the community. Notably, the current study also identified culture and context-specific considerations that should be made when implementing TPSR-based youth programming in eSwatini. These included, but are not limited to, adaptations to the awareness talk and self reflection time, the use of active learning strategies and behavioral management techniques, and the provision of fruit and food to meet basic survival needs. Continued future explorations of the program design elements and coaching strategies that most meaningfully contribute to a holistic youth development and a positive sport participation experience in eSwatini is warranted. Acknowledgements iii Traveler, the path is your tracks And nothing more Traveler, there is no path The path is made by walking - Antonio Machado – It takes a village to raise a child and I have had so many supporting hands help me get to this point. To the family, friends, and community in eSwatini who believed in me from the very beginning, “I am because we are”. What a beautiful thing to have been shaped by so many kind hearts over the years. Siyabonga kakhulu! To the children of the Moya Center, the staff, and the coaches who helped me bring this dissertation to life. It was an immense privilege to develop this program alongside you all. You are the reason why I do what I do. To the community members, key informants, coaches, and students who participated in the needs assessment that grounded this dissertation, thank you! Your voices are present in every chapter of this dissertation story! To my wonderful SEP colleagues. As the African proverb says, “If you want to go fast, go alone, if you want to go far, go together.” We have journeyed far together…and what an adventure it has been! Over the years we have shared so many moments of laughter and joy, and also experiences of sadness and challenge. In those difficult times, your support and kindness have meant everything to me. I will cherish both; the deep belly laughter and also the compassion you have shown me! Thank you! Matt and Tammy…not all heroes wear capes! Thank you for investing yourselves so fully in the coding process of my dissertation. Your enthusiasm and dedication to my work was a beautiful thing to witness. To the SEP and Counseling faculty members and my dissertation committee. I have been lucky to grow both personally and professionally under the wings of such compassionate, dedicated, and pioneering people. Dr. Clement: over the years you have pushed me to become the best possible version of me. You have supported my independence while also reaching out a helping hand when I needed it. Dr. Zizzi: You have helped me trust my way of being and enjoy the journey as it unfolds. Your kindness has been so appreciated. Dr. Etzel: it has meant more than you know to journey around the world with you through our chats about music, books, recipes, and life experiences. Thank you for trusting and nurturing my vision for consulting when I was still searching for my professional identity. Dr. Whitley: You have dedicated your life’s work to using sport as a platform for the positive and holistic development of youth all over the world. Your passion and work ethic is truly an inspiration. I hope to emulate that in my own professional journey. Dr. Abildso: Thank you for taking a leap with me. I look forward to continuing to explore the intersection of sport and community-based public health programming under your mentorship. To my dearest friends, you are my heart and soul connections for life! The greatest gifts of life are friendships, and I have been blessed with some truly beautiful ones. See you in eSwatini one day! Killeen, it’s hard to describe how you have impacted my life. In some of my most difficult iv moments of challenge, you were an unwavering presence. You give to everyone around you so selflessly. I feel privileged to have shared this chapter with you, to have watched your continued growth into a strong, compassionate, and balanced woman. Aaron. Morgantown will always be synonymous with you. Your way with people is something that will stick with me. You have an incredible ability to connect with others and make everyone you meet feel valued. Thank you for giving me a space to share the contents of my heart. Sofia, in you I have found a kindred spirit. A playful, optimistic, and deeply values-oriented soul. Thank you for the light you have brought to my life! Jay. Your determination and resilience have been pillars for me. Challenge upon challenge has been thrown your way and you have stepped up to the plate every time. Please know that even when you feel alone in those experiences, you are shaping the lives of those who are watching your fighting spirit. Thank you for all the laughter and roasts. I have met my match…but never underestimate the slow roast!  Bobby. We have truly adventured far and wide together…through the depths of some personal sorrows, through the dark but also beautiful caves of consulting and counseling internship, all the way to the humor and authentic connection that characterizes our friendship. Thank you! August…our journey did not go the direction we imagined it. But you were my pillar and biggest supporter for a very long time. Thank you for growing with me and loving me. I will forever cherish the depth of the love we shared. Most of all, thank you to my family, klavertje vier – AZRA – for showing me how to put love, kindness, and compassion at the center of all things. To my sister, Aissa…my moon spirit…my life companion – for journeying through life with me and showing me what the purest form of love feels like. “Both sun and moon blissfully call the tune. The one at midnight, the other at noon.” Rolf Huysmans. “You are imperfect, you are wired for struggle, but you are worthy of love and belonging.” Brené Brown. To my mammsy, Ann…my pillar of strength – for grounding me so firmly in optimism, kindness, and determination. “The way we talk to our children becomes their inner voice.” Peggy O’Mara. To my wonderful dad, Rolfinho – your presence is eternally missed. Not a day goes by that I don’t reflect on how incredibly fortunate I was to have your light of integrity, beauty, and vision guiding me. You were truly an exceptional human. You and mammsy showed me what love really means…when it is unconditional, when it is reflected in our everyday choices of how we treat others. Merci beaucoup! Quand on n’a que l’amour Pour unique raison Pour unique chanson Et unique secours… Quand on n’a que l’amour Pour tracer un chemin Et forcer le destin A chaque carrefour… Alors sans avoir rien Que la force d’aimer Nous aurons dans nos mains Amis le monde entire. - Jacques Brel – COACHING LIFE SKILLS THROUGH SPORT IN ESWATINI v Table of Contents Chapter 1: Introduction ................................................................................................................... 1 Chapter 2: Methods ....................................................................................................................... 11 Paradigm .................................................................................................................................... 11 Positionality ............................................................................................................................... 12 Setting........................................................................................................................................ 13 Needs assessment/pilot phase .................................................................................................... 13 Participants ................................................................................................................................ 15 Sport Program Design ............................................................................................................... 17 Sport Program Implementation ................................................................................................. 22 Instrumentation/Measures ......................................................................................................... 26 Procedures ................................................................................................................................. 32 Pre-program data collection procedures .................................................................................... 35 During-program data collection procedures .............................................................................. 36 Post-program data collection procedures .................................................................................. 37 Data Analyses ............................................................................................................................ 39 Chapter 3: Results ......................................................................................................................... 43 Preliminary results ..................................................................................................................... 44 Program implementation ........................................................................................................... 44 RQ1: What is the youth participation experience in a TPSR-based youth sport program in eSwatini? ............................................................................................................................... 44 RQ2: What are the coaching strategies and program design elements (strengths and weaknesses of coach training and sport program) that contribute most strongly to life skills learning in a TPSR-based youth sport program in eSwatini? ................................................ 54 RQ3: To what extent was fidelity to the TPSR model achieved in terms of daily structure, youth responsibility behaviors, and coaching strategies? ...................................................... 82 Program impact ......................................................................................................................... 92 RQ4: What positive developmental outcomes and changes in life skills are associated with youth participation in a TPSR-based youth sport program in eSwatini? .............................. 92 Researcher reflexivity ............................................................................................................... 99 Youth experiences ................................................................................................................. 99 Program design .................................................................................................................... 102 Chapter 4: Discussion ................................................................................................................. 105 Program implementation ......................................................................................................... 106 COACHING LIFE SKILLS THROUGH SPORT IN ESWATINI vi Research question one: youth participation experiences ..................................................... 106 Research question two: coaching strategies and program design elements ........................ 112 Research question three: fidelity to the TPSR model .......................................................... 131 Program impact ....................................................................................................................... 140 Research question four: youth positive developmental outcomes and life skills ................ 140 Limitations .............................................................................................................................. 146 Practical Implications and Future Directions .......................................................................... 148 Conclusions ............................................................................................................................. 152 References ................................................................................................................................... 154 Tables and Figures ...................................................................................................................... 177 Appendix: Extended Introduction ............................................................................................... 194 Scope of the Study................................................................................................................... 194 Basic Assumptions .................................................................................................................. 195 Limitations of the Study .......................................................................................................... 196 Definition of Terms ................................................................................................................. 197 Significance of the Study ........................................................................................................ 198 Appendix: Extended Literature Review ...................................................................................... 200 Youth, development, and sport: eSwatini context ................................................................... 201 Sport for development and peace ............................................................................................ 211 Sport for development in South Africa and eSwatini ............................................................. 223 Youth coaching in Southern Africa and eSwatini ................................................................... 232 Role of coaches in positive youth development and sport for development ........................... 240 Teaching personal and social responsibility through sport ..................................................... 248 Application of the TPSR model .............................................................................................. 253 Theoretical framework ............................................................................................................ 280 Precede-Proceed model ....................................................................................................... 281 Needs assessment/pilot phase (PRECEDE) to inform dissertation feasibility study .......... 283 Youth sport program: Theoretical framework ..................................................................... 290 Summary of Literature Review ............................................................................................... 296 Appendix A: Sport Program Outline .......................................................................................... 299 Appendix B: Coach Training Manual ......................................................................................... 329 Appendix C: Demographics Survey ........................................................................................... 351 COACHING LIFE SKILLS THROUGH SPORT IN ESWATINI vii Appendix D: Demographics and Personal and Social Responsibility Questionnaire (PSRQ) ... 352 Appendix E: Multidimensional Scales of Perceived Self-Efficacy (MSPSE) ............................ 353 Appendix F: Student Learning Quiz ........................................................................................... 357 Appendix G: Coach Focus Group Guide .................................................................................... 358 Appendix H: Youth Focus Group Guide .................................................................................... 359 Appendix I: Teacher Interview Guide ........................................................................................ 360 Appendix J: Tool for Assessing Responsibility-Based Education (TARE) – Post-Teaching Reflection .................................................................................................................................... 361 Appendix K: TPSR Implementation Checklist ........................................................................... 365 Appendix L: Coach Consent Form ............................................................................................. 366 Appendix M: Youth Assent Form .............................................................................................. 368 Appendix N: Parental Consent Form .......................................................................................... 370 Appendix O: Teacher Consent Form .......................................................................................... 372 COACHING LIFE SKILLS THROUGH SPORT IN ESWATINI 1 Chapter 1: Introduction Adolescence is a formative period in the healthy development of youth and lays the foundation for future well-being and fulfillment (Holt, 2008; Fatusi & Hindin, 2010). In developing countries, this age demographic makes up the largest proportion of the population (UNFPA, 2015). However, young people in these areas are facing significant health-related challenges as well as limited resources to support their development (Fatusi & Hindin, 2010). In the Kingdom of eSwatini (formerly known as Swaziland), a small country in Southern Africa, 36% of the population is between the ages of 10-24 years (WHO 2013; Mavundla, Dlamini, Nyoni, & Mac-Ikemenjima, 2015). While youth in eSwatini struggle with the more universal challenges associated with adolescence such as social identity development and peer pressure, emaSwati youth are also faced with major context-specific challenges. These include but are not limited to economic and resources concerns such as unemployment, low school attendance, and high poverty rates as well as health challenges such as risk for HIV/AIDS (Huysmans, Clement, Hilliard, & Hansell, 2017). Specifically, the population-level poverty rate in eSwatini is 63%, unemployment for youth aged 15-24 is 42.6%, and only about half of youth attend school (Mavundla et al., 2015; Ministry of Sports, Culture and Youth Affairs, 2015). Of even more concern is the fact that eSwatini has the highest global prevalence of HIV/AIDS; almost 30% of adults (15-49 years old) are infected (UNAIDS, 2016). The high prevalence of HIV/AIDS in eSwatini has not only put youth at significantly higher risk for infection (AVERT, 2014), but it has also had psychological, social, and economic effects on the lives of young emaSwati (Foster & Williamson, 2000). These include, but are not limited to, becoming the caretaker of a sick parent, experiencing increased financial pressure in already poor living situations, having to drop out of school to earn a living, and experiencing the death of one or both parents (AVERT, 2014; Foster & Williamson, 2000). This is consequential given the COACHING LIFE SKILLS THROUGH SPORT IN ESWATINI 2 significant body of research that indicates that exposure to adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) such as neglect or chronic illness and the death of a parent put children at greater risk for future cognitive, emotional, social and health impairments (Anda, Butchart, Felitti, & Brown, 2010; Felitti et al., 1998). Furthermore, the high adult mortality rates due to the HIV epidemic in eSwatini has resulted in a youth population (under 18 years of age) composed of almost 50% orphans and vulnerable children (AVERT, 2014). This is concerning because emaSwati (Swazi) youth are therefore not only exposed to adverse childhood experiences alongside health and resources challenges, but they are also lacking guidance and mentorship from adult role models to support their healthy development. Investing in youth development and mentorship initiatives in eSwatini should therefore be prioritized. Although there are government-led policies, and initiatives, for youth development operating at the national and community level in eSwatini, youth buy-in to these systems is limited (Mavundla et al., 2015; Ministry of Sports, Culture and Youth Affairs, 2015). Moreover, the gap between provision, and adoption, of youth services may suggest that there is a need to find ways to engage young people in their own development through creative, fun, and intentional programming. Sport-based youth development programming may be one avenue through which to achieve this goal (Beutler, 2008). Sport is seen as an appropriate vehicle through which to deliver youth development initiatives because it is an engaging and well-liked avenue for health promotion and behavior change in adolescents (Kaufman, Spencer, & Ross, 2013). It is also valued as an innovative, practical, and cost-effective tool for development (Beutler, 2008). On a global scale, a multitude of research supports the role of sport as a vehicle for youth development (Schulenkorf, Sherry, & Rowe, 2016; Svensson & Woods, 2017). COACHING LIFE SKILLS THROUGH SPORT IN ESWATINI 3 The role of sport in youth development is conceptualized as a fertilizer (Coakley, 2011) that can create the right environment to help cultivate socially desirable skills that all young people have the innate potential to develop (Coakley, 2011). Positive youth sport experiences have been found to not only meaningfully contribute to performance outcomes and future sport participation, but also personal development (Côté & Hancock, 2016). It also exposes youth to positive role models, social connections, and constructive environments that may buffer the negative impacts of ACEs and developmental trauma (Hughes, Ford, Davies, Homolova, & Bellis, 2018; Whitley, Massey, & Wilkison, 2018), build resilience (Bellis et al., 2018), and help them grow into civically engaged and conscientious adults (Beutler, 2008; Coakley, 2011). For socially vulnerable populations, sport participation can also help youth develop the life skills needed to overcome the challenges of everyday life and “succeed in the different environments in which they live, such as school, home and in their neighborhoods” (Danish, Forneris, Hodge, & Heke, 2004, p.40). Life skills may be important for socially vulnerable youth to develop due to the increased likelihood that they face stressors, mental health issues, and social isolation (Hermens, Super, Verkooijen, & Koelen, 2017). Sport-based life skills development programming may therefore be a potential vehicle through which to support the healthy development of emaSwati youth. Several studies in eSwatini indicate a large percentage of youth hold positive attitudes toward sport and its benefits on health and well-being (Huysmans et al., 2017; Ndlangamandla, Burnett, & Roux, 2012; Toriola, 2010). Both male and female youth have indicated that sport helps them develop life skills including but not limited to discipline, respect, team work, and managing emotions (Huysmans et al., 2017). Youth also reported that sport has the potential to help them overcome some of their developmental and community challenges by serving as a positive COACHING LIFE SKILLS THROUGH SPORT IN ESWATINI 4 distraction and teaching them helpful skills. In addition, youth expressed that sport may help them interact with peers who share similar struggles, and support them in building the confidence and self-esteem to progress through adversity (Huysmans et al., 2017). However, only a small percentage of youth actually participate in sport or physical education at school (Huysmans et al., 2017; Ndlangamandla et al., 2012; Toriola, 2010). Further, female perceptions of competence and participation in sport is generally much lower than for males and decreases significantly from primary school to secondary school (Toriola, 2010). This is partly affected by a culture of male dominance combined with a lack of female role models in sport (Toriola, 2010). In addition, financial, structural, and equipment barriers also limit higher youth sport participation levels (Huysmans et al., 2017; Ndlangamandla et al., 2012; Toriola, 2010). Therefore, despite youth enjoyment of sport and awareness of its positive benefits, there are significant systemic and cultural barriers that limit youth sport participation, especially for girls. Further, there is negligible programming that utilizes sport as a context for youth life skills development in eSwatini. Although there is limited sport for development programming in eSwatini, successful implementation of sport-based life skills initiatives in South Africa suggests there is potential for these programs to create meaningful developmental outcomes for emaSwati youth. South Africa is a comparable context to eSwatini given that 66% of the population is below the age of 35 and youth face similar developmental challenges (UNFPA South Africa, 2011). These include high unemployment, teenage pregnancy, poverty, HIV, and youth-led households (UNFPA South Africa, 2011). In the Kayamandi township of South Africa, research indicates that sport participation helped youth develop valuable intrapersonal, and interpersonal, life skills as well as overcome significant community challenges (Whitley, Hayden, & Gould, 2016). Sport COACHING LIFE SKILLS THROUGH SPORT IN ESWATINI 5 participation helped youth overcome community challenges by creating an environment of positive peer influences and support, keeping youth out of trouble, and giving them a reason not to make bad decisions (Whitley, Hayden, & Gould, 2013). These findings are further supported in the Buffalo Soccer Coaching Club (BSCC) in the Eastern Cape province of South Africa (Draper & Coalter, 2016). That is, youth experienced personal development across several life skills and also reported positive experiences in the program including social connection with peers and a sense of safety and belonging (Draper & Coalter, 2016). Burnett’s (2014) work with Might Metres in South Africa also emphasizes the positive impact of sport-based programming on youth pro-social behavior and building teacher learner relationships built on trust and enjoyment (Burnett, 2014). These findings from South Africa are consistent with studies from North America that support the role of youth sport participation in facilitating cognitive, emotional, and social life skills outcomes for normal adolescent development as well as for socially vulnerable or at-risk youth (Camiré, Trudel, & Bernard, 2013; Danish, Forneris, & Wallace, 2005; Gould, Collins, Lauer, & Chung, 2007; Hermens et al., 2017; Holt et al., 2017; Martinek & Hellison, 2016). The work of sport for development (SFD) and life skills programming in South Africa (Burnett, 2014; Whitley et al., 2013; Whitley, Wright, & Gould, 2016) and in Western contexts such as the USA and Canada (Hermens et al., 2017; Martinek & Hellison, 2016) support the value of investing in sport-based youth development programs in under-privileged contexts. However, sport participation does not automatically result in life skills outcomes (Coakley, 2011). Positive development outcomes associated with sport are contingent upon a wide range of factors. These include the culture of the sport environment, the social connections established during sport participation, the meaning and values associated with sport participation, and the COACHING LIFE SKILLS THROUGH SPORT IN ESWATINI 6 coach-athlete relationship (Coakley, 2011; Holt et al., 2017). Therefore, the people in charge of establishing the sport climate such as the coach become especially important in ensuring life skills learning (Gould et al., 2007). Coaches are the gatekeepers of the youth sport experience and are also often viewed by athletes as important mentors in their development (Bean & Forneris, 2016; Giges, Petitpas, & Vernacchia, 2004; Gould et al., 2007; Holt et al., 2017; Vella, Oades, & Crowe, 2011). Coaches are therefore in a unique position to be facilitating life skills development through sport (Gould et al., 2007). Specifically, when the coach is able to foster a caring and supporting sporting environment, personal development and positive developmental outcomes are more likely to occur (Spaaij, 2009; Vella et al., 2011). This is consistent with the positive youth development (PYD) framework that states that every adolescent is capable of positive developmental change but that the interaction between the individual and their sport context will heavily influence their personal development (Holt & Neely, 2011). This means that the extent to which coaches carefully craft a nurturing sport environment and include intentional life skills building activities will determine the resultant life skills outcomes (Bean & Forneris, 2016; Gould et al., 2007; Holt et al., 2017; Vella et al., 2011). In South Africa, coaching effectiveness frameworks explicitly outline the role of coaches in engendering outcomes in youth participants that are more holistic than just sport-specific outcomes (International Council for Coaching Excellence, Association of Summer Olympic International Federations, & Leeds Metropolitan University, 2013). Several studies have explored the role of youth coaches in intentionally facilitating life skills learning and positive youth development in South Africa (Meir, 2017; Whitley et al., 2013; Whitley, Wright, & Gould, 2016). These studies have found that coaches were cognizant of the challenges facing youth in COACHING LIFE SKILLS THROUGH SPORT IN ESWATINI 7 the community and therefore intentionally employed strategies to build life skills (Whitley et al., 2013). These strategies included building close relationships with youth, creating safe and caring sport climates, engaging youth in discussion, and providing opportunities to practice skills. Further strategies identified were encouraging self-reflection, modeling behavior, and empowering youth to problem-solve. (Whitley et al., 2013; Whitley, Wright, & Gould, 2016). These findings support empirical and review research in North America that emphasize the two fold role of coaches in creating a caring and positive sport climate and using explicit life skills building strategies (Collins, Gould, Lauer, & Chung, 2009; Gould & Carson, 2008; Gould et al., 2007; Holt et al., 2017; Santos, Camiré, & Campos, 2016). Despite the valuable role of coaches in facilitating life skills outcomes for youth sport participants, coaches often struggle to articulate the explicit strategies that they employ to build life skills (Camiré et al., 2013; Gould et al., 2007; Santos et al., 2016) or they face significant barriers to emphasizing life skills in their coaching (Whitley, Gould, Wright, & Hayden, 2017). Coaches have voiced concerns over the incompatibility of performance and life skills foci and the pressure to teach tactical and technical sport skills over life skills (Santos et al., 2016; Whitley et al., 2017). Further, coaches have expressed that coaching education curricula are lacking in PYD emphases and do not effectively communicate how to facilitate personal development outcomes (Santos et al., 2016). In addition, life skills development is often absent from coaching philosophies to begin with (Whitley et al., 2017). Therefore, although there is justification for the use of coaches as implementers of youth life skills programming, there is a need to first identify the barriers that prevent coaches from adequately emphasizing life skills in their coaching (Whitley et al., 2017) as well as for further coach education on the successful integration of life skills and performance foci (Santos et al., 2016). Coaches may also benefit COACHING LIFE SKILLS THROUGH SPORT IN ESWATINI 8 from training that develop teaching strategies to facilitate youth life skills learning and provides opportunities to practice those strategies (Santos et al., 2016; Whitley et al., 2013). In addition, there is limited research on this topic in non-Western contexts where youth could benefit from positive coach mentors and sport-based life skills programs. One possible solution to equipping coaches with the skills they need to deliver youth development programming would be to train them in the use of a more structured model that integrates physical and life skills objectives. One of the most well-known instructional models for life skills education through sport in North America is Hellison’s (2011) Teaching Personal and Social Responsibility model (TPSR; Hellison, 2011). The TPSR model is designed to help youth develop the necessary skills to take more responsibility for their well-being and for the welfare of others (Hellison, 2011; Martinek & Hellison, 2016). It is an intentionally structured model that employs active learning strategies to help youth achieve small successes that build confidence and self-efficacy to engage in their own development. The TPSR framework includes five responsibility levels, or goals, that youth need to take ownership of along their developmental journey: 1) respecting the rights and feelings of others; 2) effort and cooperation; 3) self-direction; 4) helping others and leadership; and 5) transfer. In helping youth attain these responsibility goals, program instructors are expected to use the following strategies: empowerment, self-reflection, integration of physical activity and life skills, being relational with kids, and transfer to life outside sport. In addition, there is a standard daily structure for TPSR sessions that allow for relationship building, group and individual reflection, life skills awareness-building, and physical activity time (Hellison, 2011; Martinek & Helison, 2016). The TPSR model has been used as the guiding framework in a multitude of youth development programs (Gordon & Doyle, 2015; Hellison, 2011; Martinek & Hellison, 2016). COACHING LIFE SKILLS THROUGH SPORT IN ESWATINI 9 These programs have primarily targeted underprivileged or at-risk youth and have been implemented in numerous settings ranging from in-school physical education classes to community-based programs (Caballero-Blanco, Delgado-Noguera, & Escartí Carbonell, 2013; Gordon & Doyle, 2015; Martinek & Hellison, 2016). The effectiveness of TPSR programs in engendering positive developmental outcomes is supported by significant literature. Multiple studies have demonstrated improvements in self-control, effort, reaching goals, leadership, and helping or cooperative behaviors (Bean, Kendellen, & Forneris, 2016; Caballero-Blanco et al. 2013; Cryan & Martinek, 2017; Escarti, Gutiérrez, Pascual, & Marín., 2010). Further, qualitative accounts of participant experiences during TPSR programs indicate high levels of enjoyment, experiencing caring adult relationships, developing a sense of belonging, and feeling safe (Caballero-Blanco et al. 2013; Escarti et al., 2010; Hellison & Walsh, 2002; Whitley, Coble & Jewell, 2016). In addition, studies also support the transfer of intrapersonal and interpersonal skills such as self-control, emotion regulation, effort, respect, and social skills to domains such as school, home, and peer groups (Bean et al., 2016; Caballero-Blanco et al. 2013; Hellison & Walsh, 2002; Hemphill & Richards, 2016; Whitley, Coble, & Jewell, 2016). Two noteworthy TPSR programs are the ‘Girls Just Wanna Have Fun’ (GJWHF) program in Ontario, Canada (Bean, Forneris, & Halsall, 2014; Bean et al., 2016) and the Refugee Sport Club (RSC) in Lansing, Michigan (Whitley & Gould, 2010; Whitley, Coble, & Jewell, 2016). Both programs successfully created safe, empathetic and supportive youth environments for sport participation and contributed to the holistic development of youth participants. These programs provided key lessons for future TPSR programming including useful program design elements and coaching strategies that contribute to positive youth development outcomes. Further, the COACHING LIFE SKILLS THROUGH SPORT IN ESWATINI 10 RSC program illustrated the value in adapting the program to the cultural context of the participants through taking a collaborative approach to program design. The aforementioned research indicates that the TPSR model may be a useful guiding framework to help coaches deliver life skills-focused sport programming across multiple youth contexts. In eSwatini, the TPSR model could provide the foundation for the design of sport based youth development initiatives that use coaches as primary program implementers. Moreover, there is justification for exploring this type of programming given the significant need to find more creative and effective platforms to address the developmental challenges facing emaSwati youth. In addition, there is evidence for the success of sport-based youth life skills development programs in South Africa where youth face similar developmental challenges. However, any further explorations of sport-based youth life skills programming should be theory-driven and need to employ more rigorous monitoring and program evaluation as weak methodologies have been over-relied on (Coalter, 2015; Levermore, 2011; Spaaij, 2009). In addition, although the TPSR model has demonstrated significant success in fostering life skills with at-risk youth, the majority of TPSR programs have been implemented in Western contexts where youth challenges are culture-specific (Caballero-Blanco et al., 2013; Gordon & Doyle, 2015; Whitley, Coble, & Jewell, 2016). An exploration of TPSR programming in eSwatini would therefore provide an opportunity to explore how the model might operate differently in a distinct youth context (Wright, Jacobs, Ressler, & Jung, 2016). The multitude of research in North America supporting the value of the TPSR model in cultivating positive developmental outcomes for underprivileged youth suggests that it would be an appropriate framework for sport-based youth life skills programming in eSwatini. The main aim of this feasibility study was therefore to explore the youth participation experiences and COACHING LIFE SKILLS THROUGH SPORT IN ESWATINI 11 successes/challenges associated with implementing a TPSR sport program for underprivileged youth in a community in eSwatini. A secondary aim of the study was to examine the positive youth outcomes and changes in life skills associated with participating in a TPSR sport program. The specific research questions were as follows: RQ1: What is the youth participation experience in a TPSR-based youth sport program in eSwatini?; RQ2: What are the coaching strategies and program design elements (strengths, weaknesses, and improvements of program and coach training) that contribute most strongly to life skills learning in a TPSR-based youth sport program in eSwatini?; RQ3: To what extent was fidelity to the TPSR model achieved in terms of daily structure, youth responsibility behaviors, and coaching strategies?; and RQ4: What positive developmental outcomes and changes in life skills are associated with youth participation in a TPSR-based youth sport program in eSwatini? Chapter 2: Methods Paradigm The current study was guided by a social constructionist paradigm (Crotty, 1998). Social constructionism is grounded in the belief that there is no singular objective truth. Rather, we create and construct meaning through our interactions with our social and cultural context. This means that individuals may experience the same phenomenon differently and construct varying, and equally valid, “truths” related to those experiences (Crotty, 1998; Ponterotto, 2005). One of the central aims of constructionist research is therefore to understand the lived experience of the research participant as expressed from their viewpoint (Ponterotto, 2005). This epistemological stance was chosen because the author posited that the youth experience in the sport program, and the successes and challenges encountered in implementing the program, would be influenced by the social and cultural context of the community. Positionality COACHING LIFE SKILLS THROUGH SPORT IN ESWATINI 12 The emphasis on co-construction of meaning in social constructionism makes it necessary to examine the background of the primary researcher that may influence the interpretations made along the research journey (Creswell, 2007; Ponterotto, 2005). I was born and raised in eSwatini, Southern Africa, but my ethnic heritage is European, as my parents grew up in Belgium. Consequently, I was raised with a mixture of Swati and Belgian cultural influences, in a home environment that subscribed to European belief systems and a school and social environment that was rooted in Swati culture and beliefs. From a young age I experienced life in eSwatini both as an insider as well as an outsider. That is, I grew up in eSwatini, I attended a public primary school and had majority emaSwati (Swazi) friends, but I was also White in a nation where 97% of the population is Black. After attending a local public primary school in eSwatini, I attended a United World College (UWC) for high school. Waterford Kamhlaba, a UWC located in eSwatini, is an international high school that attracts students of over 60 nationalities. Being surrounded by students from all over the world was a pivotal experience in shaping what I consider to be a multicultural worldview. However, this worldview is sometimes at odds with the more traditional beliefs in Swati culture. Waterford was then the stepping stone to gain a scholarship to attend college in the United States, at Duke University. At 19, I left eSwatini to start my tertiary education in the United States. My educational experiences at Duke, and then at West Virginia University as a doctoral student, have significantly shaped my identity as an academic and a scholar. However, throughout my undergraduate, and graduate, educational experiences, I have made strong efforts to connect the material I was learning to life in eSwatini, and to the belief systems that are valued there. COACHING LIFE SKILLS THROUGH SPORT IN ESWATINI 13 Nonetheless, I am aware that the majority of my higher education was experienced in a culture different from my home country, where I conducted my doctoral research. These experiences were likely to influence how I interacted with the research process; from choice of methodology, to program implementation and data analysis. From the participants’ perspective, it was also likely that I was considered an outsider (ethnicity and identity as a researcher). However, my ability to speak conversational SiSwati and the fact that I was born and raised in eSwatini may have given me, somewhat of, an insider status. Setting The feasibility study took place at a community-based children’s organization that operates in the Lobamba region of eSwatini. The children’s organization is a non-profit that provides psychosocial services and school funding support for underprivileged youth in the community including orphans and vulnerable children (OVC’s). In addition, the organization offers parenting skills programs for members of the community and infrastructure support for local schools. The organization also facilitates skill-building workshops in local schools on topics surrounding school administration, HIV/AIDS, abuse, grief, health, and basic counseling interventions. On a daily basis, the organization also provides pre-school education for OVC’s in the community and afternoon clubs (i.e. classes) to assist primary school-aged children with literacy development. During these afternoon clubs, children are provided with a light meal (mahewu – a maize-based drink). The grounds of the children’s organization have a vegetable garden, a sheltered outdoor play area as well as a soccer field. Needs assessment/pilot phase COACHING LIFE SKILLS THROUGH SPORT IN ESWATINI 14 Based on the preliminary results from the needs assessment/pilot phase, several decisions were made to guide the development of the feasibility study (current dissertation). First, sport is a beloved and creative context through which to engage emaSwati (Swazi) youth in positive development. Using sport as the platform for youth programming in the feasibility study was therefore an appropriate path forward. Second, HIV/AIDS prevention is an immensely complex issue that requires long-term investment, strong community connections, and a multidisciplinary approach. The feasibility study therefore took out the HIV/AIDS component and instead focused on developing the life skills that HIV/AIDS experts identified as most valuable for HIV/AIDS prevention i.e. the PRE factors from phase 3. These included: self-belief, social & personal responsibility, goal-setting, decision-making, self-efficacy, and emotional expression. Third, youth within the 15-24 years old demographic have already developed a strong set of beliefs related to relationships, gender roles, sexual intimacy etc. It would therefore be more effective to engage younger age demographics in youth development programming. Fourth, emaSwati youth are lacking caring and empathetic adult mentors. Given that coaches believed in their role as mentors and educators for youth athletes, they were an appropriate population to engage with to implement sport-based positive youth development feasibility programming. Fifth, coaches were keen to learn strategies and approaches to strengthen their ability to facilitate life skills learning for their athletes. Using the Teaching Personal and Social Responsibility (TPSR) model to guide coach education for the feasibility study was therefore a viable option. Sixth, emaSwati youth were interested in engaging in mixed gender sport-based programming where they could learn multiple sports. The feasibility study was therefore designed to include these elements. Last, social cognitive theory and the positive youth development (PYD) framework were used as the theoretical foundation of the feasibility COACHING LIFE SKILLS THROUGH SPORT IN ESWATINI 15 study. The emphasis of PYD on creating positive sporting environments and treating youth as inherently capable of becoming successful complemented the emphasis of social cognitive theory on human agency and the active role that youth may play in their development. The use of both implicit and explicit PYD learning pathways also provided the right social environment for self-efficacy beliefs to emerge in youth sport participants. Participants Youth participants were thirty-three students (N=33, 22 females and 11 males) aged 11 15 years old (M=12.6 years old, range=11-15) who attended the grades 6 and 7 afternoon club (grade 6 (n=24), grade 7 (n=9)) at the community-based children’s organization. Sample size at the outset was intended to be 15 youth participants as this has been found to be optimal for group activities and to create a caring climate (Cryan & Martinek; Whitley & Gould, 2010). However, all youth who attended the afternoon class at the time were keen to participate so the primary researcher decided not to deny participation to any youth given the ethos of the program. Eligibility criteria for participation included: 1) current enrollment in a primary school in the Lobamba area of eSwatini; 2) current attendance at the afternoon club at the children’s organization; 3) conversational English language proficiency; 4) aged 10-15 years old; and 5) signed parental consent and youth assent to participate in the study. Although all youth who attended the organization were either single or double orphans, they all lived in a household where there was an adult guardian who could sign a consent form. Youth were recruited through convenience sampling from an afternoon club at the community-based children’s organization that they attended. Coach participants in the study were three (N=3) male youth coaches (2 emaSwati, 1 Zimbabwean; M=27.3 years old) from the Lobamba region of eSwatini. This sample size was COACHING LIFE SKILLS THROUGH SPORT IN ESWATINI 16 chosen given recommendations that the ratio of coaches to youth participants should not exceed 1:5 to provide the opportunity for quality one-on-one interaction (Cryan & Martinek; Whitley & Gould, 2010). Evidently this coach to youth ratio could not be retained given the significant increase in the number of youth participants. In addition, after one week of the sport program a coach had to drop out because he finally got a full-time job after two years of unemployment. The remaining two coaches ran the last 2 weeks of the program on their own. Coach eligibility criteria included: 1) at least two years of experience coaching a youth or adolescent sport team; 2) at least 18 years old; 3) English language proficiency; and 4) SiSwati language proficiency. The coaches included in the study had an average of 5.5 years of coaching experience and previous expertise coaching a range of sporting codes including basketball, soccer, volleyball, athletics, badminton, and aerobics. All coaches had a background coaching a similar age-group (U12 and U14) to the youth participants in the sport program. Two of the coaches had grown up in the same community as the youth participants while the third coach shared a similar socio economic background to the youth although he had grown up in a different country. Two of the three coaches had no prior training in positive youth development while the third coach had partially completed a training course in positive youth development. Initial contact with coaches began via phone and email while the primary researcher was still in the United States. This was reasonable given the connections that were established through the researcher’s study the previous summer on youth coaches in eSwatini. Every effort was made to recruit at least one male and female coach, but this was not possible given the limited number of female coaches in the country. The primary researcher also aimed to recruit coaches who were relatable (i.e. similar ethnicity and gender, and less than 20 years older than youth) to the youth and could be viewed as mentors. Relatability and the mentorship role of COACHING LIFE SKILLS THROUGH SPORT IN ESWATINI 17 coaches has been found to be an important predictor of positive youth development outcomes through sport participation (Gould, Collins, Lauer, & Chung, 2007). Moreover, during recruitment, the primary researcher emphasized the youth participant demographics with the coaches to highlight the privileged role they would be in as role models and trusted adults in the lives of the youth participants. Only coaches who seemed invested in that mentorship and educator role were asked to participate in the study. Coaches received a financial incentive and certificate for participating in the program, which they were informed of during the consent process. Sport Program Design The overall research objectives of the sport program (intervention) were to: 1) explore the youth participation experiences and successes/challenges associated with implementing a Teaching Personal and Social Responsibility (TPSR) sport program in eSwatini; and 2) examine the positive youth outcomes and life skills associated with participating in a TPSR-based sport program. Separate from these research objectives, the goals of the sport program for the youth and coach participants were to: 1) provide youth with opportunities to be physically active; 2) provide youth with opportunities to participate in a range of different sports and physical activity-based games; 3) provide youth with opportunities to have fun; 4) facilitate youth life skills development through sport; and 5) provide coaches with the opportunity to learn new coaching strategies to promote life skills development through sport. The sport program was named “Talabasha - Temidlalo Nemfundvo”, which means “Youth time - Of sports and education/learning” in SiSwati. This name was chosen together with the coaches during the coach training. COACHING LIFE SKILLS THROUGH SPORT IN ESWATINI 18 The sport program took place for 75-100 min every week day for three weeks with a total of 15 sessions. This was consistent with recommendations from prior TPSR programs that sport sessions occur at least two to three times per week for 60 minutes (Cryan & Martinek, 2017; Whitley & Gould, 2010). Although three weeks was a short amount of time to achieve sustainable program outcomes (Bean, Kendellen, & Forneris, 2016), the current program was intended to be a feasibility study. The successes and challenges of implementing this type of youth sport programming will be used to inform more long-term programming in eSwatini. Sessions took place either on the soccer field or in the outdoor play area of the children’s organization during the afternoon club slot between 2:30 and 4:10 pm every day. Sport equipment was purchased for use in the program thanks to the Association for Applied Sport Psychology (AASP) Gualberto Cremades International Research Grant. This included volleyballs, basketballs, soccer balls, netballs, frisbees, pinnies, cones, a volleyball net, and a video camera. This equipment was gifted to the children’s organization after the end of the sport program. The sport program was designed, and implemented, according to the key programmatic features of the TPSR model as well as using the information gathered during the needs assessment/pilot phase. The program was therefore grounded in the foundational TPSR principles of holistic youth positive development, youth centered approaches, and fostering human decency (Hellison, 2011; Martinek & Hellison, 2016). The TPSR model was chosen over other life skills education through sport models for the following reasons: 1) the option to tailor the life skills focus to values and skills that are appropriate to the cultural and youth context that the program operated in; 2) the focus on teaching coaches how to use intentional strategies to COACHING LIFE SKILLS THROUGH SPORT IN ESWATINI 19 facilitate the learning of life skills; and 3) the emphasis on transfer of life skills learning in the sport setting to domains outside of sport (Hellison, 2011; Martinek & Hellsion, 2016). As a brief overview, the sport program was designed using the standard TPSR daily structure (relational time, awareness talk, physical activity, group reflection, and individual reflection) and responsibility levels/goals (respecting others, effort and cooperation, self direction, helping and leadership, and transfer). Specific design elements from several successful TPSR-based youth sport programs also informed the development of the program. These TPSR based programs included the ‘Girls Just Wanna Have Fun’ (GJWHF) program in Ontario, Canada (Bean, Forneris, & Halsall, 2014; Bean et al., 2016), the ‘Refugee Sport Club’ in Lansing, Michigan (Whitley & Gould, 2010; Whitley, Coble, & Jewell, 2016), and the Soccer Coaching Club in central North Carolina (Cryan & Martinek, 2016). Each day of the program followed the same TPSR daily structure except for session one. Session one was used for ice breakers and to briefly introduce youth to all the responsibility levels and the expectations for the program. The remaining 14 sessions used the same daily structure: 1) relational time (10 minutes); 2) awareness talk (20-45 minutes); 3) physical activity (30 minutes); 4) group reflection (10 minutes); and 5) individual reflection (5 minutes). Details of the program design will now be described. Each day started with a brief period dedicated to building the relationship between the coaches and the youth i.e. relational time. Coaches made an effort to briefly chat with as many youths as possible and build a caring and meaningful coach-youth relationship. Various pieces of sport equipment were available for the youth to play around with as they relaxed and refocused after their day at school. To encourage timeliness, youth were given a small piece of candy for arriving on time. A local maize-based drink (emahewu) was also made available for the youth to COACHING LIFE SKILLS THROUGH SPORT IN ESWATINI 20 consume as this was something that was normally provided by the children’s organization for their afternoon club classes. The awareness talk followed the relational time and was an opportunity for the coaches to teach the youth a life skill or responsibility that is valuable to develop. Awareness talks took place under a large tree on the sport field as it is customary in Swati culture to have group discussions under the shade of a tree. Although the awareness talks were intended to be facilitated in a mixture of English and SiSwati, it became apparent very quickly that youth confidence was very low in English so SiSwati was used as the primary means of communication. This decision ultimately promoted higher youth participation in discussion. Each day of the program focused on a specific responsibility level and main life skill. As the weeks progressed, the responsibility level foci shifted to the more complex responsibility behaviors i.e. moving from respect (level 1) to effort (level 2) to self-direction (level 3) and to caring and leadership (level 4). The final level, transfer (level 5), was included in every session given that this is an integral component of the TPSR model and previous programs have recommended integrating transfer into as many sessions as possible (Bean et al., 2016; Whitley, Coble, Jewell, 2016; Walsh, Ozaeta, & Wright, 2010). Transfer was operationally defined as any individual conversations, reflection opportunities or discussions related to applying life skills and responsibility concepts learned in the program to other domains of life such as school. Visual posters defining each life skill in English and siSwati were hung on and around the tree to aid learning. Using visual aids is an effective teaching strategy that accommodates for differences in the developmental needs and learning styles of youth (Allison & Rehm, 2007). A whiteboard was also used in most sessions where the poster for the life skill focus of that day was placed for easy reference. Although the sport program was delivered primarily in SiSwati, the use of the COACHING LIFE SKILLS THROUGH SPORT IN ESWATINI 21 visual aids that translated each SiSwati concept into English nonetheless helped youth learn about how the concepts could be referred to in English. In an effort to make the awareness talk an interactive and engaging component of the daily structure, there was always an activity integrated into the awareness talk that focused on the responsibility level and life skills of the day. These structured life skills learning activities were drawn from the Sports United to Promote Education and Recreation (SUPER) model (Danish, Forneris, Hodge, & Heke, 2004) of life skills education through sport (e.g. Dare to Dream activity) as well as sport psychology literature (e.g. deep breathing and muscle relaxation). An extended version of the awareness talk was used to provide time for the integration of those activities into the awareness talk. However, although the awareness talk was intended to be 20 minutes, most days had awareness talks that lasted between 30 and 45 minutes. Swati culture has a strong oral tradition which is typified by very deliberate and slow-paced discussion where talking points are e