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How do college student-athletes’ understanding and expectations of mindfulness and self-compassion change through an intervention? How do college student-athletes’ understanding and expectations of mindfulness and self-compassion change through an intervention? of mindfulness and self-compassion change through an intervention? Blake Costalupes West Virginia University, bc0104@mix.wvu.edu Follow this and additional works at: https://researchrepository.wvu.edu/etd Part of the Cognitive Psychology Commons, and the Sports Studies Commons Recommended Citation Costalupes, Blake, "How do college student-athletes’ understanding and expectations of mindfulness and self-compassion change through an intervention?" (2023). Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports. 11748. https://researchrepository.wvu.edu/etd/11748 This Dissertation is protected by copyright and/or related rights. It has been brought to you by the The Research Repository @ WVU with permission from the rights-holder(s). You are free to use this Dissertation in any way that is permitted by the copyright and related rights legislation that applies to your use. For other uses you must obtain permission from the rights-holder(s) directly, unless additional rights are indicated by a Creative Commons license in the record and/ or on the work itself. This Dissertation has been accepted for inclusion in WVU Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports collection by an authorized administrator of The Research Repository @ WVU. For more information, please contact researchrepository@mail.wvu.edu. How do college student-athletes’ understanding and expectations of mindfulness and self compassion change through an intervention? Blake Costalupes, M.A. Dissertation submitted to the College of Applied Human Sciences at West Virginia University School of Sport Sciences in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology Sam Zizzi, Ed.D., Chair Dana K. Voelker, Ph.D. Monica Leppma, Ph.D. Melissa Sherfinski, Ph.D. School of Sport Sciences Morgantown, West Virginia 2023 Keywords: mindfulness, self-compassion, qualitative research Copyright 2023 Blake Costalupes Abstract How do college student-athletes’ understanding and expectations of mindfulness and self compassion change through an intervention? Blake Costalupes In the last two decades, mindfulness has permeated sport, exercise, and performance psychology (SEPP). Mindfulness research in SEPP primarily focuses on the efficacy of manualized protocols on various outcomes related to performance and wellbeing; how athletes understand this complex construct, though, is largely unexplored in the literature. Additionally, some researchers suggest that the potentially paradoxical adoption of mindfulness in Western psychology may be contributing to limited outcomes, low engagement in, and poor adherence to mindfulness-based interventions (MBIs). In addition, the exploration of self-compassion as a mechanism for change through mindfulness practice has increased in recent years, making it an important component to consider. The purpose of the present study was to investigate what college student-athletes (SAs) expect to gain from participating in a MBI, how they understand the concepts of mindfulness and self-compassion, and how these expectations and understandings change from beginning to end of an intervention. Intervention supported shifts in understanding were viewed through a constructivist-interpretivist lens. Individual interviews (n = 42) were conducted with all SAs on an NCAA DII swim team at the beginning and end of a 7 week MBI. Reflexive thematic analysis revealed multiple levels of change across members of the team, indicating that expectations may be tied to outcomes, and understanding may be a limiting factor for perceived outcomes. Results provide some evidence that SA expectations and understanding of mindfulness and self-compassion may be related to ambiguity caused by the blending of traditional Eastern mindfulness with Western psychological interventions. Keywords mindfulness, self-compassion, qualitative research, understanding, expectations, intervention MINDFULNESS AND SELF-COMPASSION iii Acknowledgements I have many individuals for whom I am extremely grateful for their unconditional support through the process of this doctoral degree. First, I would like to thank Dr. Zizzi – your sustained guidance and ability to hold perspective, positive regard, and see both sides of the fence have been, and will always be, incredibly important to me. Thank you for your mentorship, and the lasting impact you have made in my life. It is, in fact, the best day of the year. Thank you to my wonderful cohort. To Tommy – thank you for allowing me to be of witness to your unparalleled persistence, work ethic, and acceptance toward others. I would absolutely not have completed this journey when I did without your help. To Luna – thank you for your friendship and for being a voice of comfort and reason when I needed it most. I will be forever grateful. Thank you to all my friends, colleagues, and mentors in the SEPP program at West Virginia University. The culture of this program got me in the door, it fueled me the last four years, and it will be something I miss and cherish forever. Programs such as this are only as good as the people that make it, and I can only hope that others get to keep experiencing this as well. Lastly, thank you to my family. To Audrey – thank you for your unconditional love and support, for picking me up when I fall down, and enduring my struggles at every step of the way. To mom and dad – thank you for your continued support and allowing me to persist in my dreams. To Brock – thank you for testing the way, making me feel that I had a place in higher education, and lighting the fuse for what I thought possible for myself. MINDFULNESS AND SELF-COMPASSION iv Table of Contents How do college student-athletes’ understanding and expectations of mindfulness and self compassion change through an intervention? ................................................................................. 1 Methods........................................................................................................................................... 7 Design.......................................................................................................................................... 7 Paradigm...................................................................................................................................... 7 Research Team Positionality ....................................................................................................... 9 Participants and Recruitment .................................................................................................... 10 Data Collection Instruments ...................................................................................................... 12 Demographics and Expectations ........................................................................................... 12 Interviews .............................................................................................................................. 13 Mindfulness Intervention ....................................................................................................... 14 Pilot Intervention ................................................................................................................... 15 Procedure ................................................................................................................................... 16 Data Analysis ............................................................................................................................ 18 Trustworthiness ......................................................................................................................... 20 Results and Discussion ................................................................................................................. 20 Change in Expectations ............................................................................................................. 21 Change in Mindfulness.............................................................................................................. 25 Change in Self-Compassion ...................................................................................................... 28 Limitations and Future Directions ................................................................................................ 32 Summary and Conclusion ............................................................................................................. 33 Literature Review.......................................................................................................................... 35 Mindfulness ............................................................................................................................... 35 Mindfulness - What is it? Where did it come from, and how did it get here? ....................... 35 Mindfulness-Based Interventions outside sport .................................................................... 38 Mindfulness-Based Interventions for Sport ........................................................................... 41 Self-Compassion ....................................................................................................................... 47 Self-Compassion in Sport ...................................................................................................... 50 Combining Mindfulness and Self Compassion ..................................................................... 54 Expectations and Experiences of MBIs .................................................................................... 57 References ..................................................................................................................................... 61 MINDFULNESS AND SELF-COMPASSION v Tables ............................................................................................................................................ 74 Demographics and Expectations Questionnaire ........................................................................ 77 Part 1. Tell us a little bit about yourself and your sport experiences .................................... 77 Interview Guide (T1) ................................................................................................................. 79 Interview Guide (T2) ................................................................................................................. 81 Extended Methods ..................................................................................................................... 84 Researcher Positionality ........................................................................................................ 84 Extended Results ....................................................................................................................... 87 Time 1: Beginning of Intervention ........................................................................................ 87 Time 2: End of intervention................................................................................................. 102 MINDFULNESS AND SELF-COMPASSION 1 How do college student-athletes’ understanding and expectations of mindfulness and self compassion change through an intervention? In recent decades, the concept of mindfulness has been increasingly adopted by Western psychology. As a concept and practice, mindfulness dates back thousands of years and is rooted in Eastern (e.g., Hindu and Buddhist) philosophical teachings. This migration of mindfulness from east to west is due, in part, to Jon Kabat-Zinn and Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR; Kabat-Zinn, 1982), which was designed to mitigate human suffering through an eight week manualized training. MBSR demonstrates efficacy in improving wellbeing in a variety of settings with diverse populations (Haller et. al., 2021; Kabat-Zinn et. al., 1985; Zhang et al., 2019; Zou et al., 2020;). Researchers in the field of sport and exercise psychology (SEP) have similarly adopted mindfulness for use in enhancing wellbeing and performance among sport participants. For example, Noetel et al. (2019) conducted a systematic review of mindfulness based interventions (MBIs) in SEP and found that such approaches can promote flow states and anxiety reduction. Moreover, Wang and colleagues (2023) meta-analyzed existing randomized trials including MBIs, with the most compelling evidence suggesting that MBIs can promote aspects of mindfulness, flow states, and psychological flexibility—though only 32 studies were included and little research exists suggesting practicing mindfulness directly improves sport performance. Although promising results have been found regarding MBIs in sport, some critiques should be noted. Current reviews and commentaries have questioned the rigor of MBI research in SEP (McAlarnen & Longhshore, 2017). Specifically, much of the mindfulness literature in SEP, and in general psychology, consists of small sample sizes with varied effects, inconsistent outcomes, few randomized controlled trials, lack of replicability, and ambiguous language MINDFULNESS AND SELF-COMPASSION 2 surrounding terms like mindfulness and meditation (Noetel et al., 2019; Van Dam et al., 2018). Additionally, some authors suggest that engaging in mindfulness practices can lead to adverse effects (AEs) for some individuals (Farias et al., 2020). Additionally, some studies show that athletes completing an MBI report difficulties with lack of immediate results and feeling uncomfortable during meditation practices (Cote et al., 2019), or show decreases in performance (Zadkhosh et al., 2018). and a more realistic, less dogmatic interpretation of potential benefits of the practice is needed particularly given what extant literature communicates (Britton et al., 2019; Van Dam et al., 2018). In addition to inconsistent research quality, possible AEs, and lack of research suggesting MBIs directly increase performance, some have suggested that the very nature of mindfulness in in SEP may be “paradoxical” in that it is being integrated into a cultural paradigm that is focused on controlling specific outcomes—like sport performance (Andersen, 2020). Further, Roychowdhury et al. (2021, p. 2) discussed the “transnational migration” of mindfulness from ancient Indian Hinduism and Buddhism to the modern Western view. The authors suggested that traditional aspects of mindfulness teachings that may result in greater benefits could have been lost as a result of the reappropriation of mindfulness in the modern, outcome-focused conceptualization. These traditional teachings of mindfulness include letting go of ego, embracing impermanence, practicing nonjudgement of thoughts and feelings, and acceptance and compassion towards self and others, which may contrast with how mindfulness may be marketed in the West (Andersen, 2020). Although both Eastern and Western conceptualizations of mindfulness are aimed at easing human suffering, the mechanisms for achieving this may be distinctly different and perhaps even conflicting. Further, current framing of mindfulness in Western-based interventions may limit the benefits participants could gain from a fuller MINDFULNESS AND SELF-COMPASSION 3 understanding of traditional mindfulness (Andersen, 2020; Khong 2009, 2021; Roychowdhury et al., 2021; Segall, 2021). To fully discern the effects of these two distinct conceptualizations of mindfulness, it may first be important to assess what concepts are most salient to those practicing with little to no formal experience or understanding. Becoming aware of ones’ baseline conceptual understanding, and how it changes through practice, may be foundational in determining how mindfulness ‘gains’ are realized and implemented in various life domains. Although experts in SEP and related fields are integrating mindfulness consistently, little research has investigated what conceptual components of the practice actually mediate or moderate changes related to wellbeing and performance. Some promising descriptive research, however, may provide insights into how mindfulness connects with outcomes related to performance and wellbeing. For example, self-compassion has been noted in the literature as one of the core concepts of, not separate from, mindfulness (Khong, 2021). Mosewich et al. (2013) observed significant improvements, with moderate-to-strong effects, in rumination, concern with mistakes, and self-criticism among female athletes who engaged in a self-compassion intervention compared to controls. Additionally, Lyon and Plisco (2020) explored cross-sectional associations between self-compassion, mindfulness, dispositional flow, and sport anxiety among elite athletes. Results indicated that self-compassion significantly predicted athletes’ levels of flow beyond the predictive value of mindfulness. The combined effect of mindfulness and self compassion accounted for 27% of the variance in participants' flow state experience. These studies indicate that self-compassion may play a role in enhancing the sport experience by decreasing disruptors of performance and wellbeing. Specifically, self-compassion may interrupt negative thinking by helping individuals to practice mindful awareness and self-kindness rather than self-criticism or mechanisms for stopping or controlling thoughts. Of note, MBI research in MINDFULNESS AND SELF-COMPASSION 4 SEP with prominent programs such as Mindfulness, Acceptance, and Commitment (MAC; Gardner & Moore, 2004) and Mindfulness Sport Performance Enhancement (MSPE; Kaufman et al., 2009) have not explored self-compassion as a moderator of MBI effectiveness (with the exception of Pineau, 2014). Although self-compassion may be a crucial element of Eastern mindfulness, it is often excluded from MBI research in sport and treated as a distinct construct. However, the research investigating the relationship between mindfulness and self compassion in SEP is emerging, and it presents an argument for its important role in wellbeing and performance outcomes. The construct of self-compassion has been defined in Western psychology by Neff (2003) as, “being touched by and open to one’s own suffering, not avoiding or disconnected from it, generating the desire to alleviate one’s suffering and to heal oneself with kindness” (p. 87). Further, Neff’s conceptualization of self-compassion includes three main components, namely, self-kindness (employing a warm and nonjudgmental nature to self), common humanity (normalizing adversity and perceived failures as part of the human condition), and mindful awareness (being open and accepting to thoughts and feelings that arise). Further, this conceptualization of self-compassion has been investigated as an attitude that can be developed over time (Ingstrup et al., 2017; Doorely et al., 2022; Mosewhich et al., 2013; Reis et al., 2015; Voelker et al., 2019). Although some interventions outside of sport exist to teach self-compassion (Neff & Germer, 2013), there is only one sport MBI that highlights compassion as a key theme. The Mindfulness Meditation Training for Sport 2.0 program (MMTS; Baltzell & Summers, 2018) was developed to promote mindfulness and self-compassion among sport participants. Most research investigating this program has been qualitative in nature, and explored experiences of student-athletes (SAs) after having completed the MMTS 2.0 program—with a specific focus on MINDFULNESS AND SELF-COMPASSION 5 self-compassion (e.g., Cote et al., 2019; Baltzell et al., 2014; Baltzell, 2015). Overall, participants across MMTS 2.0 studies noted that the program was enjoyable and helped them learn emotion regulation strategies. However, the results also showed that the athletes struggled with meditation at times, had low fidelity to engagement outside of sessions, and felt confused about the application of meditation to sport performance (Cote et al., 2019; Baltzell et al., 2014). One study investigating coaches’ experience in the intervention noted that they viewed the program as a useful means of mental training but were unable to attribute any positive changes in their athletes directly to the intervention (Baltzell et al., 2015). No qualitative research has explored the changing conceptual understanding, and how perceptions differ from pre- to post intervention. Although investigating the experience of athletes completing MBIs is important, mindfulness literature in sport has been focused predominantly on outcomes and program evaluations. Although important, this focus on outcome studies may be limiting the full understanding of for whom, and why, mindfulness is effective or ineffective. A few recent studies, however, have investigated participants’ expectations and understanding of mindfulness. For example, Mistretta et al. (2017) asked 45 college SAs to state their top three expectations before completing the MSPE program. The athletes indicated that they expected to gain benefits related to mental toughness, self-regulation of mood, stress, and anxiety, and overall increases in sport performance. Similarly, Tifft et al. 2022 conducted a cross-sectional study with college students (n = 98) and gathered information related to their expectations for mindfulness practice. Although outside of sport, they found that those who were interested in outcomes related to self regulation and control, such as getting rid of or reducing anxiety, achieved less effective results and reported greater negative affect, depression, and anxiety than those seeking to learn about MINDFULNESS AND SELF-COMPASSION 6 things like acceptance and nonjudgment (Tifft et al., 2022). These studies highlight that expectations among participants for mindfulness practice may affect outcomes. Specifically, it is possible that expectations about control over thoughts and feelings may conflict with mechanisms of change in mindfulness practice surrounding acceptance and letting go. It may be important for practitioners, then, to seek to assess for participants’ understanding of mindfulness and the mechanisms that may be involved in positive change through practice. Although few studies exist investigating participant understanding of mindfulness, Goisbault et al. (2022) conducted a study with 40 elite French female basketball players (M = 16.33 years old) after completing a 15-week MBI. Post-MBI participant interviews revealed that the athletes’ understanding of concepts like acceptance, stress, and satisfaction were related to positive improvements in those areas and changed during the intervention. Additional research that explores the connection between athletes’ understanding of mindfulness and intervention outcomes is necessary to document these potential moderating effects. In sum, the post-intervention experiences of athletes participating in MBIs has been studied with some frequency. What is missing from the literature is an understanding of how participants’ understanding of mindfulness changes over time; specifically, no studies have jointly explored what athletes expect to gain from MBIs, how athletes understand mindfulness and self-compassion conceptually, and how these connect to their changing understanding of these concepts. The connection between expectations and understanding of mindfulness and self compassion may be foundational to understanding how and why MBIs are effective or ineffective. It may also help practitioners learn how to best frame and implement mindfulness and self-compassion practices with athletes relative to the outcomes they are looking to achieve. MINDFULNESS AND SELF-COMPASSION 7 To address these gaps, the primary purpose of the present study was to investigate college SAs’ expectations and understandings of mindfulness and self-compassion before and after a MBI. The MBI, adapted from MMTS 2.0 and combined with other MBI protocols in sport, was implemented as part of a larger study investigating the connection between mindfulness and thriving. The research questions in the present study were: (1) What do SAs expect to gain from completing a mindfulness and self-compassion intervention? (2) How do SAs understand mindfulness and self-compassion? (3) How do expectations and understandings of mindfulness and self-compassion change as a result of participating in a MBI, if at all? Methods Design This study was conceptualized as a qualitative examination of an intervention supporting shifts in participants’ expectations and understandings of mindfulness and self-compassion. Grossman and Van Dam (2011) discuss the significance of using individual interviews to understand the complexities of mindfulness that may not be gathered in brief self-report measures, which have garnered criticism (Van Dam et al., 2018). Semi-structured interviews were thus the primary source of data collection. This approach to interviewing allowed for enough structure to make comparisons in themes across time, while creating the flexibility to ask probing and follow-up questions to capture participants’ unique understandings. Further, this approach allowed results to be grounded in participant explanations, rather than coming to any objective “truth” about their experiences. Paradigm Ontologically, this study was viewed through the lens of relativism, such that multiple meanings can be made from the same observable phenomenon, and none are more or less valid MINDFULNESS AND SELF-COMPASSION 8 (Harper, 2011). For example, the research team remained open to the notion that participants would most likely experience change from the intervention on a spectrum. This spectrum may range from no change at all to some change, to significant. Further, a constructivism interpretivism epistemology framed the qualitative inquiry in this study. Ponterottro (2005) posits that in constructivism, the nature of reality is created cognitively through participants’ own experience rather than a single truth that is produced outside the individual’s perception. This position also asserts the idea that reflection by the participant is essential to uncover the lived reality of their experience. Further, this reflection can be sparked by the interaction between the researcher and the participant. This framework guided the research team by keeping the focus on the participants and their subjective experiences with the intervention, without a focus on uncovering any objective reality that is the same for each individual. Patterns of data were created through analysis solely to highlight changes that occurred for each individual from beginning to end of the intervention. Because this inquiry was focused on each participant's unique expectations and understandings of the intervention across time, a constructivist paradigm was most appropriate. Constructivism stems from the original idea of Kant (1966), in that the perceptions of humans are characterized by both the senses, and cognitions and perceptions of those senses. Therefore, claims about reality can only be understood through the cognitions of others. The intervention protocol was the same for each participant; however, the complexities of their understanding of the concepts taught through this program was unique to the individual. Additionally, it should be noted that the participants’ experience of the intervention, and meanings derived, were impacted, in part, by the levels of society in which they operate. The application of constructivism in this study, therefore, also includes interpretivism, or the idea that the reality of each individual’s understanding is situated historically, at one moment in time, and MINDFULNESS AND SELF-COMPASSION 9 culturally. Specifically, the experiences for each individual were shaped by their sport culture, university, family structure, and the ideals inherent within Western society and/or that of which they have experienced personally. Although the present study did not analyze the data solely as a derivative of social construction, contextual realities of each participant were noted, and it is important to highlight that these influences were likely in effect to some degree for each participant, respectively. Research Team Positionality The current study was conducted by a research team consisting of the primary author, four faculty members, a doctoral candidate engaging in data analysis coding, two additional doctoral students conducting interviews, and an undergraduate research assistant (for a full positionality statement for the primary author and research team, see Appendix D). In conducting a qualitative study such as this, it is important to fully situate the research team, as they are positioned within the study, including the subject to be investigated, the research participants, and the methods used. It is important to understand that each member of the research team carries with them their own identities, world views, and preconceived notions towards the current study, its participants, and the methods of data collection and analysis. For example, the primary author and additional doctoral candidate engaged in data analysis have a prior affinity towards mindfulness and self-compassion in their work, including past research projects, SEP consulting, and psychotherapy. In addition, both researchers were engaged in the world of sport culture through athletics participation and coaching. Researcher reflexivity was important through the process of this project to mitigate potential influences of these experiences in the data analysis process. For example, each researcher kept their own written notes on potential biases and pre-conceived notions throughout their exposure to the data. When the researchers MINDFULNESS AND SELF-COMPASSION 10 met to discuss progress through the analysis process, collaborative dialogue on reflexivity was present. Participants and Recruitment Braun and Clarke (2019) suggest that meaning through qualitative exploration, specifically Thematic Analysis (TA), is created through interpretation rather than extracted from the data, and therefore knowing when enough data is collected before the analysis process can prove difficult. Therefore, in determining the appropriate sample size for a study using TA, it may be most appropriate to use the information power concept (Malterud et al., 2016). Information power suggests that the more information the sample contains, the lower the amount of participants necessary. In this approach, appropriate sample size is determined by the scope or purpose of the study, theoretical framework, specificity, quality and depth of data, and implementation methods for analysis (Malterud et al., 2016). Because the present study included one college athletic team, the methods used for this study was aimed at capturing all voices of its members. This study attempted to gain insight into the understanding of concepts that may have been new to participants, and included interviews at both at the beginning and post-intervention. Therefore, the research team expected the depth of responses in the first interview related to understanding of mindfulness and self-compassion and the role it currently plays in their life, to be quite low in power. For this reason, it became important to ensure that the data reflected the majority of voices on the team. To ensure most voices were captured, the interviews were framed as part of the intervention itself. At post-intervention, it was hypothesized that participants would have more to say having gone through the MBI, and therefore typical attrition that may occur in this kind of study could still yield high information power due to increase depth of responses. Additionally, many previous qualitative studies of MBI’s (Baltzell et al., 2014, 2015; Worthen & MINDFULNESS AND SELF-COMPASSION 11 Luiselli, 2016) have primarily included individuals who volunteered to complete interviews. This method may have led to biased results, missing accounts from others that had neutral or negative experiences. The intention in the present study was to advertise the interviews to participants as a reflective activity embedded in the program to garner a more diverse set of experiences and the greatest number of responses. However, participants did have the choice whether to engage in interviews, and completion, or lack thereof did not exclude them from participation in the intervention itself. Convenience and purposive sampling were used to recruit one mixed-sex NCAA Division II college varsity athletic team in the Mid-Atlantic region of the United States. This team was chosen based on availability of schedule and proximity to the research team. Larger teams, including those with both male and female members were given primary consideration due to more diversity in the sample and potential for generalizability of the data. Although the entire team participated in the intervention, each individual on the team was considered a distinct case in the present study and asked to complete both interviews. Of the total sample that completed the intervention (n = 31), 28 completed at least one interview and were included in the study. A total of 26 completed the T1 pre-intervention interviews (83.8% completion rate), and 16 completed the T2 post-intervention interviews (51.6%). The total number of participants that completed both interviews was 14. The total sample (n = 28) was composed of 16 females and 12 males, age ranged between 17 and 22 (