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Living Your Best Life: The Mindful Pursuit of Student-Athlete Living Your Best Life: The Mindful Pursuit of Student-Athlete Thriving Andrew Augustus West Virginia University, ana00006@mix.wvu.edu Follow this and additional works at: https://researchrepository.wvu.edu/etd Part of the Health Psychology Commons, Other Psychology Commons, and the School Psychology Commons Recommended Citation Augustus, Andrew, "Living Your Best Life: The Mindful Pursuit of Student-Athlete Thriving" (2023). Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports. 11689. https://researchrepository.wvu.edu/etd/11689 This Dissertation is protected by copyright and/or related rights. It has been brought to you by the The Research Repository @ WVU with permission from the rights-holder(s). You are free to use this Dissertation in any way that is permitted by the copyright and related rights legislation that applies to your use. For other uses you must obtain permission from the rights-holder(s) directly, unless additional rights are indicated by a Creative Commons license in the record and/ or on the work itself. This Dissertation has been accepted for inclusion in WVU Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports collection by an authorized administrator of The Research Repository @ WVU. For more information, please contact researchrepository@mail.wvu.edu. Living Your Best Life: The Mindful Pursuit of Student-Athlete Thriving Andrew N. Augustus, MEd. Dissertation submitted to the College of Applied Human Sciences at West Virginia University School of Sport Sciences in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology Sam Zizzi, Ed.D., Chair Dana Voelker, PhD. Scott Barnicle, PhD. Vanessa Shannon, PhD. School of Sport Sciences Morgantown, West Virginia 2023 Keywords: Mindfulness, Well-Being, Performance, Self-Compassion, Thriving Copyright 2023 Andrew Augustus Abstract Living Your Best Life: The Mindful Pursuit of Student-Athlete Thriving Andrew N. Augustus, MEd. Thriving, or the concurrent experience of healthy well-being and high-level performance, may serve as a valuable construct when studying the optimal student-athlete experience and mindfulness-based interventions (MBIs) have been shown to positively impact well-being and performance. The purpose of the present study began to examine the impact of an MBI for improving student-athlete experiences of thriving via a quasi-experimental longitudinal design. NCAA Division II student-athletes (n = 55) from three sports were randomly assigned to either a control or a 7-session MBI. While comprehensive measures of thriving did not yield significant change for those in the MBI relative to the control, multiple thriving characteristics and outcomes were improved. MBI participants reported quantitative significant improvement for subjective performance satisfaction, mindful awareness, and the use of mindfulness to regulate emotions. Exploratory analysis revealed those in the MBI, relative to the control, experienced improvements of optimism and a sense of meaning and purpose. Within the program evaluation, student-athletes qualitatively reported sport and life benefits related to thriving (e.g., self regulation, focus, awareness, vitality, intentional actions) while also suggesting improving MBIs with systematic reminders to meditate, more meditation opportunities within the sport environment, and autonomy-supportive instruction. These preliminary data support the use of MBIs to facilitate characteristics and outcomes of thriving, while also offering suggestions for practical improvements when implementing MBIs with student-athletes. Acknowledgements iii I am grateful for the support and guidance I have received throughout this process. Thank you to my committee for your critical feedback and invaluable perspectives. Each of you have tremendously impacted this dissertation from conceptualization to submission. Thank you to my family, friends, and classmates for encouraging, listening, and empowering me throughout this journey. Most of all, thank you to my parents for your endless love and support. “There is a road, no simple highway. Between the dawn and the dark of night. And if you go, no one may follow. That path is for your steps alone.” – Robert Hunter iv Living Your Best Life: The Mindful Pursuit of Student-Athlete Thriving ............................. 1 Method ........................................................................................................................................... 6 Research Design .......................................................................................................................... 6 Participants .................................................................................................................................. 6 Instruments .................................................................................................................................. 6 Background and Demographic Information ............................................................................ 6 Thriving ................................................................................................................................... 7 Subjective Performance ........................................................................................................... 8 Mindfulness ............................................................................................................................. 8 Program evaluation ................................................................................................................ 10 Procedures ................................................................................................................................. 10 Pilot Intervention ................................................................................................................... 11 Intervention Details ............................................................................................................... 12 Data Analysis ............................................................................................................................ 14 Results .......................................................................................................................................... 15 Descriptive Statistics and Baseline Characteristics ............................................................... 15 Intervention Engagement and Effects: Manipulation Check ................................................. 16 Impact on Thriving: Between-Groups Differences ............................................................... 17 Program Evaluation Feedback ............................................................................................... 18 Discussion..................................................................................................................................... 19 Sport Performance Satisfaction via Mindful Awareness and Self-Regulation...................... 20 Impact on Thriving: Optimism and Purpose for Sport and Beyond ...................................... 21 Practical Implications ............................................................................................................ 24 Limitations and Future Considerations.................................................................................. 26 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................. 28 References .................................................................................................................................... 30 Tables ........................................................................................................................................... 42 Table 1: Overview and Intervention Details for Sport-Adapted MBI ................................... 43 Table 2: Baseline Descriptives, T-Tests, and Chi-Squares (Time 1) .................................... 44 Table 3: Manipulation Check: Between-groups RM ANOVA Interaction Results and Estimated Marginal Means (Times 1-2) ................................................................................ 47 Table 4: Between-groups RM-MANOVA and RM-ANOVA Results and Estimated Marginal Means (Times 1-3) ................................................................................................. 48 Mindfulness and Thriving v Table 5: Exploratory Analysis of CIT Subcomponents- RM-ANOVA Results and Estimated Marginal Means (Times 1-3) ................................................................................................. 49 Table 6: Summary of Program Evaluation Open Response Answers ................................... 51 Appendix A: Extended Literature Review ............................................................................... 52 Thriving ..................................................................................................................................... 53 Facilitators of Thriving .......................................................................................................... 54 Thriving Interventions ........................................................................................................... 58 Measures of Thriving ................................................................................................................ 60 Mindfulness ............................................................................................................................... 62 Features and Historical Influences ........................................................................................ 62 Benefits for Mental Health and Well-Being .......................................................................... 63 Dosage. .................................................................................................................................. 65 Formal and Informal Approaches .......................................................................................... 66 Mindfulness Interventions for Sport ...................................................................................... 68 Connections Between Mindfulness and Thriving ..................................................................... 70 Accomplishments and Performance ...................................................................................... 71 Vitality, Meaning, and Eudaimonistic Enlightenment .......................................................... 75 Learning ................................................................................................................................. 76 Flow and Engagement ........................................................................................................... 78 Self-Efficacy, Self-Regulation, and Self-Compassion .......................................................... 80 Mental Toughness, Psychological Flexibility, and Performing through Pressure ................ 82 Optimism ............................................................................................................................... 83 Autonomy .............................................................................................................................. 83 Relatedness and Cohesion ..................................................................................................... 84 Subjective Well-Being ........................................................................................................... 84 Figure 1. ................................................................................................................................. 87 Measures of Mindfulness .......................................................................................................... 88 Appendix B: Overview and Intervention Details for Sport-Adapted MBI ........................... 90 Module 1: Introduction to Mindfulness; Values and Committed Actions ............................ 91 Module 2: Acceptance and Self-Compassion ........................................................................ 92 Module 3: Mind-Body Connection and Sport ....................................................................... 93 Module 4: Lifelong Mindfulness to Thrive ........................................................................... 94 Appendix C – Intervention Materials ....................................................................................... 95 Module 1: Introduction to Mindfulness; Values and Committed Actions ............................ 95 Module 2: Acceptance and Self-Compassion ...................................................................... 101 Mindfulness and Thriving vi Module 3: Mind-Body Connection and Sport ..................................................................... 103 Module 4: Lifelong Mindfulness ......................................................................................... 108 Session 7-- Continuing to Build Towards Poise and Psychological Flexibility .................. 108 Appendix D: Assessment Battery ............................................................................................ 113 Mindfulness At-Home Practice Log and Mental Health Referral........................................... 128 References ............................................................................................................................... 129 Mindfulness and Thriving 1 Living Your Best Life: The Mindful Pursuit of Student-Athlete Thriving The performance and well-being of athletes are foundationally important goals, and the ultimate aims of sport, exercise, and performance psychology (SEPP) practitioners. Mental health can be understood across a continuum that spans from mental illness (i.e., diagnosable symptoms that impede normal functioning) to mental well-being (i.e., positive mental functioning); well-being is comprised of social (e.g., relationships), psychological (e.g., optimism, eudaimonia), and subjective (e.g., happiness) components (Keyes, 2002). Recently, public disclosures from elite athletes like Simone Biles and Michael Phelps have illuminated athlete experiences along this continuum. Phelps shared at the Kennedy Mental Health Forum: “We’re supposed to be this big, macho, physically strong human being, but this is not a weakness. We are seeking and reaching for help” (Prizont-Cardo, 2018). Biles noted the connections between mental health, well-being, and performance: “Put mental health first because if you don’t, then you’re not going to enjoy your sport, and you’re not going to succeed as much as you want to” (Nardino, 2021). Coinciding with these anecdotal accounts, researchers have found that a high level of performance success does not occur without personal and sport-related experiences of adversity (Sarkar et al., 2015). Although adversity does not cause mental illness, stressors from the high pressure environment may magnify athlete mental health symptoms. In addition to the mental illnesses of the general population (e.g., depression, anxiety), athletes may experience sport specific stress related to overtraining, injury, athletic identity, transition from sport, disordered eating, substance misuse, sleep disorders, and more (Chang et al., 2020). As athletes transition from high school to college, they are near the developmental age when mental illness first arises in young adults (McGorry et al., 2011), Furthermore, collegiate student-athletes report academic Mindfulness and Thriving 2 and performance stress and pressure from coaches, teammates, and family unique from non student-athletes (Brown et al., 2014). With the student-athletes facing a variety of stressors related to sport and beyond,it is not a surprise that researchers have prioritized well-being and performance in their approaches with this population (Gross et al., 2018). Researchers from a variety of fields ranging from industrial organizational psychology to positive youth development are investigating the intersection of well-being and performance through the construct of thriving (Brown et al., 2021; Lerner et al., 2011; Sarkar & Fletcher, 2014; Spreitzer et al., 2005). Although definitions slightly vary across fields, thriving is the joint experience of consistent high-level performance and healthy development and well-being (Brown et al., 2018). People experiencing this adaptive state often believe they are learning, growing, and progressing towards goals or values with a sense of passion and vitality (Spreitzer et al., 2005). Brown and colleagues (2018) qualitatively examined thriving according to the perspectives of athletes, coaches, and sport psychology practitioners (n = 15) and identified facilitators (e.g., training environment, self-regulation), characteristics (e.g., focused, sense of belonging), and outcomes (e.g., optimal performance, personal development) of thriving. A key characteristic of thriving is basic psychological needs satisfaction (BPNS), which accounts for the necessity of humans to experience relatedness, competence, and autonomy (Deci & Ryan, 2012). Researchers have reported a strong, positive relationship between BPNS and thriving among both adult and youth athlete samples (Brown et al., 2021; Kinoshita et al., 2021). Athletes emphasize that strong supportive social connections, collective team goals, and autonomy-focused coaching facilitate thriving (Brown & Arnold, 2019; McHenry et al., 2020). These contextual factors may foster an environment that is conducive to learning, growing, performing through pressure, and building a strong sense of competence (Brown et al., 2021). Mindfulness and Thriving 3 Beyond contextual facilitators (e.g., motivational climate) that might influence both BPNS and thriving, several personal factors also play a role. Goal setting, mental toughness, self regulation, self-awareness, concentration, and mindfulness have all been identified as possible facilitators of thriving (Brown et al., 2018; Gucciardi et al., 2017; Özcan & Vural, 2020). Athletes, coaches, and sport psychology practitioners also reported an optimistic mindset as a key characteristic of thriving (Brown et al., 2018). Other personal characteristics of thriving, like vitality, meaning, and purpose, may support thriving outcomes like holistic development and eudaimonia (Spreitzer et al., 2005; Su et al., 2014). Interventions aimed to improve these personal factors may help facilitate thriving. For example, positive youth development programs have been successful in improving thriving outcomes (e.g., holistic development) by focusing on the intentional application of life skills for young people who have experienced adversity (Pearson et al., 2021). Positive psychology interventions that guide female university students towards pursuing intrinsically valued goals have helped increase thriving (Heekerens & Heinitz, 2019). Additionally, researchers have begun to investigate how mindfulness-based interventions (MBIs) may improve thriving with university students (Özcan & Şahin, 2021). Mindfulness is defined as an intentional state of accepting, compassionate, and nonjudgmental awareness within the present moment (Kabat-Zinn, 2003). Mindfulness appears to influence or have significant associations with several characteristics and outcomes of thriving, such as relatedness and cohesion (e.g., Baltzell et al., 2014), engagement and flow (e.g., Moore et al., 2013), learning (e.g., Zhang et al., 2016), self-efficacy and competence (e.g., Blecharz et al., 2014), vitality (e.g., Chang et al., 2022), optimism and mental toughness (e.g., Wang et al., 2021). Figure 1 illustrates some of the established and emerging connections between mindfulness and thriving. In a randomized controlled trial (RCT), Özcan and Şahin’s Mindfulness and Thriving 4 (2021) sample of female-identified university students (n = 19) reported significant improvements in thriving, as measured by the Multidimensional Thriving at Work Scale [MTWS; Porath et al., 2012], following a 6-session MBI. Seppälä et al. 's (2020) RCT with university students (n = 131) found that exercises focused on emotional intelligence, self compassion, gratitude, and self-regulation with breath-based meditations effectively improved psychological thriving, as measured by a variety of well-being scales, after an 8-week intervention. Though these studies show promising results, they used different measures of thriving, did not include follow-up data to examine long-term outcomes, and were not with student-athletes. Specific to student-athletes, researchers have identified that MBIs may support the two key outcomes of thriving: well-being and performance (Gross et al., 2018; Evers et al., 2021). Gross et al. (2018) compared a 7-week Mindfulness-Acceptance-Commitment (MAC) intervention group to an active control group who experienced traditional Psychological Skills Training (PST) with 22 Division III women basketball players. The MAC intervention utilized psychoeducation and experiential components (e.g., centering exercises, meditations) to teach mindfulness, cognitive defusion, commitment to values, acceptance, and poise. Relative to the PST, the MAC intervention was significantly more effective at reducing psychological distress and generalized anxiety while improving psychological flexibility, emotion regulation, and performance satisfaction. Using an extended (15-week) yet similar MAC-influenced intervention, researchers explored the effects with elite female basketball players (n = 40, age M = 16.3) via a mixed-methods design (Goisbault et al., 2022). Following the intervention, athletes qualitatively reported benefits related to awareness, attention, and vitality (e.g., commitment towards values and goals) in addition to significant quantitative improvements with moderate Mindfulness and Thriving 5 effect sizes for non-judgment, acceptance, interpretations of stress, and performance satisfaction. Mindfulness might support sport performance indirectly in several ways, including self regulation and optimism (Wang et al., 2021). Following an 8-week MAC intervention, participants (n = 60, age M = 19.54) reported significantly higher levels of mental toughness, endurance, and optimism in relation to running an 800-meter race. Furthermore, when considering the thriving outcome of holistic development, student-athlete academic performance is also important and MBIs have also been shown to have positive academic benefits such as self-regulation and focus (Phan et al., 2022). Although thriving was not measured directly, these findings suggest MBIs may be useful in supporting characteristics and outcomes of thriving in student-athlete populations. Student athletes have reported many qualitative (e.g., vitality, engagement) and quantitative (e.g., performance satisfaction) improvements related to thriving, but using instruments specifically designed to measure thriving (e.g., Comprehensive Inventory of Thriving, Su et al., 2014) could provide a more comprehensive analysis of these connections. With an emphasis on both performance success and well-being, the construct of thriving may be a valuable lens through which to explore optimal athlete experiences in a comprehensive way. The purpose of this research was to (a) examine the efficacy of a MBI in improving thriving and subjective performance in collegiate student-athletes as compared to a control and (b) explore the components of the MBI perceived by collegiate student-athletes to be the most helpful, beneficial, or challenging. It was hypothesized that participants in the intervention group, relative to those in the control group, will experience greater improvements in thriving and subjective performance. Mindfulness and Thriving 6 Method Research Design A quasi-experimental, longitudinal design was used to gather quantitative and qualitative data over the course of a 7-week sport-adapted MBI (with five-week follow-up data) to assess the efficacy of improving student-athlete thriving and mindfulness. Participants Participants were recruited from Division II and III colleges and universities in the Midwestern and Eastern sections of the US. With the guidance and introductions from a committee member, the researcher emailed coaches in the region to recruit potential teams. To be included in this study, participants were at least 18 years of age and current student-athletes on teams with coaches that agreed to participate in the intervention. Participants or teams that had previously completed a MBI were excluded. A total of 55 student-athletes from three teams at two different universities were successfully recruited for the intervention, with a total of 49 participants completing time 2 data collection, and 44 completing time 3 data collection. Instruments Background and Demographic Information Items asked participants to report age, race, sex, sport, years of sport participation, and current hours per week spent practicing sport. Previous exposure and practice of mindfulness was also recorded through an item on experiences with mindfulness. Mindfulness and Thriving 7 Thriving The Comprehensive Inventory of Thriving (CIT; Su et al., 2014) was used to assess thriving. Corresponding with Keyes’ (2002) view of well-being, the 54-item CIT contains 18 subcomponents based on the seven factors of well-being: relationships, engagement, mastery, autonomy, meaning, optimism and subjective well-being. Participants answered items via a 5 point likert scale (1, Strongly Disagree, to 5, Strongly Agree). Item scores were added for a total score of positive scales and negative scales, as well as subcomponent scores. Higher scores indicate greater levels of thriving for positive scales and lower scores indicate better levels of thriving for negative scales. All subscales of the CIT have shown solid internal consistency across five validation samples (α ranged from 0.71 - 0.96) and test-retest reliability (0.54 - 0.83). Internal consistency with the current sample ranged from α = .56 to .87 for subcomponents and was α = .67 for negative scales and α = .90 for positive scales. One of the validation samples (n = 490, age M = 19.5) was exclusively university students. Convergent and discriminant validity testing of the CIT shows moderate to strong relationships with several established measures of well-being and negative correlations with measures of ill-being (Su et al., 2014). Although most thriving characteristics and outcomes are represented by the CIT, to our knowledge, this is the first time it has been used to measure thriving within a sport population. The Multidimensional Thriving at Work Scale (MTWS; Porath et al., 2012) was used to assess thriving through the participants experiences of learning and vitality in their sport and academic environment. The MTWS is a 10-item, 5-point Likert scale (1, Strongly Disagree, to 5, Strongly Agree) inventory in which scores are summed to yield a total score and learning and vitality subscales, with higher scores indicating higher levels of thriving in the sport or academic domain. Porath et al.’s (2012) thriving scale has commonly been used in many fields, including Mindfulness and Thriving 8 sport (Gucciardi et al., 2017). The construct validity of the MTWS has been supported by convergent data showing a significant relationship with positive affect (r = .49), learning goal orientation (r = .37), proactive personality (r = .56), job satisfaction (r = .72), organizational commitment (r = .41), career initiative (r = .40), and performance (r = .29). Discriminant data shows a significant inverse relationship between the MTWS and negative affect (r = -.31) and burnout (r = -.74). Additionally, the MTWS had excellent internal consistency across validation samples (α ranged from 0.90 - 0.94). Internal consistency with the current sample ranged from α = .73 to .91 for subscales and composite scales for both academic and sport-adapted versions. Subjective Performance Subjective athletic and academic performance were reported on a 1-10 sliding scale in which participants were asked to “Mark your level of satisfaction with your sport (or academic) performance over the past month, from 0 (not at all satisfied) to 10 (highly satisfied)”. Additionally, participants were asked to share two to three factors contributing to their rating. The 1-10 subjective performance ratings scale has been used by other thriving and sport researchers (Brown et al., 2017; Arnold et al., 2017; Levy et al., 2011) as an outcome variable in their interventions. Mindfulness The Athlete Mindfulness Questionnaire (AMQ; Zhang et al., 2017) was used to assess levels of dispositional mindfulness. The AMQ has 16 items that measure three factors; sport specific present-moment attention, awareness, and acceptance on a 5-point likert scale (1, Never True, to 5, Always True). Scores are added to yield a total score and subscale scores, with higher scores indicating greater levels of sport-specific mindfulness. Each of the three factors has been Mindfulness and Thriving 9 shown to be internally reliable (αs = 0.64 to 0.75) and to have convergent (rs = 0.21 to 0.46) and divergent (rs = -0.23 to -0.40) validity with four samples (n = 1302, age Ms = 19.6 to 21.6) of Chinese athletes (Zhang et al., 2017). Additionally, reliability (αs = 0.75 to 0.77) and validation with discriminant data (rs = -0.14 to -0.42) of the AMQ has also been supported with US college athletes (Van Dyke et al., 2021). Internal consistency with the current sample ranged from α = .77 to .79 for subcscales and was α = .89 for the composite scale. The Applied Mindfulness Process Scale (AMPS; Li et al., 2016) was used to assess how participants incorporate mindfulness practices within their lives. The AMPS has 15 items that measure three factors; negative emotion regulation, positive emotion regulation, and decentering on a 5-point likert scale (0, Never, to 4, Almost Always). Scores are added to yield a total score and subscale scores, with higher scores indicating higher application of mindfulness skills. Each of the three factors has been shown to be internally reliable (α = 0.91) and to have convergent (r = 0.29 – 0.52) and divergent (r = - 0.48) validity with a large sample of mindfulness practitioners (Li et al., 2016). Internal consistency with the current sample ranged from α = .74 to .87 for subcscales and was α = .92 for the composite scale. The Acceptance and Action Questionnaire-II (AAQ-II; Bond et al., 2011) was used to measure psychological flexibility, which shares common features with components of thriving (Sarkar & Fletcher, 2014). The AAQ-II assesses levels of psychological inflexibility versus flexibility and experiential avoidance versus acceptance. The AAQ-II contains 7 items that are rated on a Likert scale (1, Never True, to 7, Always True) and added to create a composite score, with lower scores indicating higher levels of psychological flexibility. Bond et al’s (2011) validation study (n = 2816) included 6 samples from a range of backgrounds (e.g., college students, financial industry workers, rehabilitation patients). The researchers found the AAQ-II Mindfulness and Thriving 10 to have high test-retest reliability (rs = 0.79 to 0.81) and good predictive (d = 1.12) and discriminant validity (rs = 0.49 to 0.71). Internal consistency for the current sample was α = .88. Program evaluation Sixteen items were used to assess participants’ satisfaction with the sport-adapted MBI, perceived benefits, perceived challenges or obstacles, likelihood of continuing a daily mindfulness practice, and likelihood of recommending the program to peers. Nine items were on a Likert scale (1, Strongly Disagree to 5, Strongly Agree) while seven items prompted open answer responses. The program evaluation items (e.g., challenges, obstacles) also captured negative or adverse experiences of the program, which is an important facet of mindfulness research (Van Dam et al., 2018). At the start of sessions 2-7 and at data collection 3, participants were asked how many minutes per day they practiced mindfulness on their own to evaluate between session practice fidelity and transfer of interventions skills into daily life. Procedures During the summer of 2022, the primary researcher conducted a pilot version of the sport-adapted MBI. This allowed the primary researcher to plan, administer, and evaluate session content, timing, and mode of delivery. Additionally, administration of the assessment battery helped evaluate item wording, timing, and explore effect sizes for variables to inform power analysis for sample size. After the pilot, the researchers attained Institutional Review Board approval for the study. Convenience sampling was used to gain access to potential sport team participants. Sports with spring championships were favored to ensure an offseason or early season intervention, limiting extraneous variables and improving feasibility due to increased availability of practice time. After recruitment, three Division II teams agreed to participate in the study: a swim team (n = 33) that was randomly assigned to the intervention group and a golf Mindfulness and Thriving 11 team (n = 10) and tennis team (n = 12) that were randomly assigned to the control group. Due to the smaller rosters of tennis and golf, they were combined for random assignment as an attempt to balance sample size between intervention and controls. Student-athletes were informed of the potential benefits (e.g., improvements of well-being, performance) and risks (e.g., adverse reactions to meditation, loss of time) of the intervention and given the choice to participate prior to the first data collection by a secondary researcher. Data collection occurred at three timepoints: pre-intervention (T1), nine weeks later at post-intervention (T2), and a five-week follow-up (T3). Data were collected in-person through an assessment battery administered in person at the team’s facility by secondary researchers. Pilot Intervention Pilot participants were recruited from a team the first researcher had previously provided consultation. Although the original intervention was planned for eight weeks, due to scheduling feasibility, modules 3 and 4 were reduced to one week each and the total intervention to six weeks. Initially, six participants signed up for the pilot intervention. Five participants completed the first survey and majority of the intervention, while four participants completed both surveys (survey took between 13 to 18 minutes to complete). There was a 93% adherence rate for the five who participated, and sessions took on average 54 minutes. Outcome data from RM-ANOVAs indicated large effect sizes for the AMQ-16 (ηp2 = .43), AAQ-II (ηp2 = .41), AMPS (ηp2 = .27), CIT (ηp2 = .25), and MTWS (ηp2 = .25). A power analysis using the effect sizes for mindfulness and thriving from the pilot study (ηp2 = .25 to .43) suggested 42 total participants as adequate for statistical analysis with these larger effect sizes. Feedback from the participants informed the research team of considerations regarding survey items (e.g., rewording CIT community items to be sport-specific), mindfulness exercises (e.g., participants thought box breathing was the least Mindfulness and Thriving 12 useful while awareness of breath was the most useful), and modes of delivery (e.g., all preferred handouts to write on versus slides or prompt questions with open journaling). While participants reported practicing formal mindfulness on their own for an average of 28 minutes per week (participants were encouraged to practice 35 minutes per week), they shared that introducing more informal methods early on and a weekly check-in could have helped reinforce daily practice. After the pilot it was determined that the intervention could be adequately experienced in seven sessions; the researchers decided to keep modules 1-3 at two sessions each, and to reduce the final module to one session. Sport-related language (e.g., team, teammates) was added to items 4, 5, 6, 8, 16 on the CIT to help participants clarify item meaning. Pilot participant feedback also informed changes to modes of delivery and mindfulness exercises provided for between-session practice. Aligning with their preferences, prepared handouts were used for each session and awareness of breath exercises was practiced within sessions and encouraged for between-session practice more frequently than box breathing. Intervention Details The intervention was led by the first author. He has ten years of experience coaching swimming, applied counseling experience through his MEd., and six years of mental performance consulting experience. His theoretical orientation integrates acceptance and commitment therapy, cognitive behavioral therapy, and positive psychology. First introduced to mindfulness in 2016, the first author has progressively embedded mindfulness into his personal practice and professional work. With the support of the second author, who has over two decades of mindfulness practice, the first author has instructed college courses on mindfulness. Mindfulness and Thriving 13 The protocol for the intervention group was influenced by sport-adapted MBIs including MAC (Gardner & Moore, 2007), Mindful Sport Performance Enhancement (MSPE; Kaufman et al., 2018), and especially Mindfulness Meditation Training for Sport (MMTS; Baltzell & Summers, 2017). Specific components from each program align well with conceptual and correlational connections to thriving and therefore were emphasized. This adaption allowed for purposeful selection of mindfulness concepts and exercises that may promote thriving. Participants completed seven sessions within four modules over the course of nine weeks. Session length will varied from 50-60 minutes and included psychoeducation, didactic discussions, reflection journal prompts, group and partner reflections, and mindful meditation exercises with an emphasis on application to performance and well-being in sport and daily life. Across the course of the four modules, participants were introduced to mindfulness and acceptance concepts (e.g., present-moment awareness, attention, self-compassion, defusion, anchoring) and asked to do 5-10 minutes of mindfulness at home each day. The researchers considered feasibility as well as the previous research highlighting frequency and the potential impact of brief meditations when deciding dosage recommendations (Karing & Beelmann, 2021; Edwards et al., 2017). The researchers provided between-session mindful journaling prompts and meditation resources to support participant at-home practice. An emphasis of the program was to enhance mindfulness and increase value-driven behaviors by guiding participants towards intentionally applying skills and concepts towards training, performance, and daily life. Further details related to intervention design, justifications, and decision-making regarding the intervention can be found in appendix B. A comprehensive outline of each module is provided in Table 1. Mindfulness and Thriving Data Analysis 14 Data was analyzed via SPSS. Descriptive analysis via independent sample t-tests and chi squared analysis was conducted to determine the equivalence of groups at baseline. As an intervention manipulation check, 2 x 2 ANOVAs were used to assess changes in mindfulness and psychological flexibility. A series of MANOVAs and ANOVAs was conducted to answer the first research question and its subsequent parts, while a pragmatic approach with basic thematic analysis was be used for the second research question (Chen, 2016). Two 2 x 3 group by time MANOVAs were used to answer examine if those in the MBI group improved comprehensive thriving (via the CIT), compared to a control group. MANOVAs allow for a sufficient analysis of complex constructs and questions, making this approach necessary for the comprehensive definition and measurement of thriving. A 2 x 3 MANOVA was used for all the positive subcomponents of the CIT and one was used for the negative subcomponents of the CIT. For each 2 x 3 MANOVA, the researchers tested for multivariate normality and homogeneity of covariance matrices. Additionally, the researchers conducted 2 x 3 RM-ANOVAs for the subcomponents of the CIT as an exploratory analysis. A series of 2 x 3 group by time RM-ANOVAs were used to assess change for the MBI group relative to the control, in academic and sport thriving (via the MTWS), as well as subjective performance satisfaction. For each 2 x 3 RM-ANOVA, the researchers first tested for normality and sphericity. Post hoc comparisons were made to analyze differences between groups over time. The second research question focused on participants’ experiences within the intervention and was analyzed with a pragmatic program evaluation (Chen, 2016). This approach is designed for the evaluation of real-world programs and incorporates simple quantitative and qualitative elements to capture participants perceptions and experiences. The 5-point Likert scale items were Mindfulness and Thriving 15 averaged across participants so that means and standard deviations could be compared with similar MBI program evaluations (Worthen & Luiselli, 2016). A post-positivist approach was used for the program evaluation open response data analysis. With an understanding that while the true objective reality of the study cannot be fully captured, it is important to allow the participant’s words to determine themes (Ponterotto, 2005). In alignment with a post-positivist approach, content analysis was used to determine themes from the open answer items (Wood & Bloor, 2006). This approach allowed for the efficacy of the intervention to be analyzed directly from participant perceptions. Consistent with previous researchers, a hybrid approach to coding was used with questions categorized deductively (e.g., benefits, challenges), and patterns of responses coded inductively (Fereday & Muir-Cochrane, 2006). Researchers one and three became acquainted with the data by compiling responses into one source and reading over the data multiple times. Once familiar with the data, the researchers independently inductively coded responses to support the rigor and integrity of the analysis. The researchers then met to identify, debate, and rectify patterns and themes found within the data. Once themes were identified, the second researcher audited the themes. Results Descriptive Statistics and Baseline Characteristics Independent samples t-tests and chi-squared analysis were conducted at baseline (N = 55) to examine potential differences between the control and intervention group on DVs. The intervention group was significantly higher in sport experience (p < .001) and hours per week in sport (p < .001), but lower in comprehensive positive thriving (p = .02), sport vitality (p = .02), and sport-specific mindful awareness (p = .02). See Table 2 for full descriptive baseline data. Mindfulness and Thriving 16 Intervention Engagement and Effects: Manipulation Check Attendance for each session was as follows: session one (93.5%), session two (93.5%) session three (83.8%), session four (90.3%), session five (83.8%), session six (77.4%), and session seven (96.7%) for an average of 88.4%. Over the course of the program, participants reported practicing formal mindfulness for 31.95 (SD = 24.89) minutes per week which accounts for 71% of what was prescribed. At follow-up, participant practice had dropped an additional 20.7% to an average of 25.35 (SD = 21.79) minutes per week, which accounts for 56.3% of what was prescribed. To test program fidelity, a manipulation check was conducted via 2 x 2 RM-ANOVAs (n = 49) for each mindfulness scale and subscale, as well as psychological flexibility, comparing the means for these variables from pre-program to post-program of the intervention group relative to the control. From this manipulation check, several significant medium to large effects were found. There were statistically significant interactions of group and time on the AMPS subscale of negative emotion regulation (ηp2 = 0.17, p = .01), the AMPS (ηp2 = 0.15, p = .007), the AMQ subscale of awareness (ηp2 = 0.14, p = .008), AMPS subscale of decentering (ηp2 = 0.13, p = .01), and the AMPS subscale of positive emotion regulation (ηp2 = 0.09, p = .04). As was intended, the intervention appears to have led to moderate effects on several mindful process variables. Although medium effects were found, there was no significant interaction of time and group on AMQ scores between T1 and T2 for the intervention group relative to the control (ηp2 = 0.06, p = .08). Similarly, there were no significant differences in the AMQ subscale of acceptance (ηp2 = 0.03, p = .27), AAQ scores (ηp2 = 0.02, p = .39), or the AMQ subscale of attention (ηp2 = 0.0, p = .99). Though these patterns of data were encouraging, except for mindful awareness which did have a medium effect, the intended effects of the intervention on self Mindfulness and Thriving 17 reported mindfulness and psychological flexibility were not observed. See Table 3 for full results from the manipulation check. Impact on Thriving: Between-Groups Differences Two 2 x 3 RM-MANOVAs were used to analyze changes in comprehensive thriving for the positive and negative scales. Although effects were seen in the hypothesized directions, there were no significant condition-by-time effects for either positive (ηp2 = .03) or negative thriving (ηp2 = .02). Due to a lack of power (Range: 0.25 - 0.49), analysis of the MANOVA results was limited. To gain a better understanding of the changes in comprehensive thriving, a series of 2 x 3 exploratory RM-ANOVAs were used to examine effect sizes for the subscales of comprehensive thriving. Medium effects were found for optimism (ηp2 = .09) and meaning and purpose (ηp2 = .08). Specifically, the intervention group showed improvement of scores, compared to the control group, on these two variables – providing some support for the intervention effects. A series of 2 x 3 RM-ANOVAs were used to assess changes in sport thriving, academic thriving, subjective sport performance, and subjective academic performance across the course of the intervention. Subjective sport performance was found to show significant group-by-time effects with medium magnitude (ηp2 = 0.12). This moderate effect shows that the intervention group reported greater improvements in sport performance satisfaction compared to the control group. No significant interaction effects were found for sport thriving, academic thriving, nor academic performance satisfaction. Results for all thriving-related RM-MANOVAs and RM ANOVAs with estimated marginal means and notes regarding violations of assumptions can be found in Table 4. The exploratory result details can be found in Table 5. Mindfulness and Thriving 18 Program Evaluation Feedback As a result of content analysis, a variety of themes were produced related benefits, facilitators, challenges, and negative experiences within the program. Participants shared that the program was effective in providing benefits to sport (M = 4.34 out of 5, SD = .54), including improved self-regulation (20.4%), enhanced focus (15.9%), and positive changes of awareness and perspective (18.2%). Participants reported using mindfulness to channel the right mindset (“helped me be calm but competitive”) prior to performance (“helped get me into the zone”), as well as in response to adversity (“calm and collected when things get hard”). Finding a balanced perspective (“take the good things even in dark days”) and reigniting intrinsic motivation (“actually enjoying swimming for swimming”) also resonated with some participants. The program also appears to have helped participants in their daily lives outside of sport (M = 4.16 out of 5, SD = .72). Participants reported academic benefits (24.2%) such as improved engagement (“easier to pay attention in class”) and self-regulation (“nerves when test-taking”). The self-regulation benefits seen in sport also appeared to transfer to daily life (21.2%) as participants used mindfulness to help themselves “think clearer” and be “able to relax”. While 87.5% of participants reported no negative or adverse reactions to mindfulness, 6.2% of participants cited an increased awareness of negative thoughts or emotions. Although 23.5% of participants reported no challenges to learning and practicing mindfulness, maintaining focus did appear to hinder others (23.5%). The large group setting may have further contributed to challenges with focus while meditating within sessions (M = 2.59 out of 5, SD = 1.24). Participants found the applied portions of sessions (e.g., meditation; 34.5%) and the autonomy-supportive strategies (e.g., multiple meditation options; 34.5%) to be most engaging or helpful aspects of the intervention for learning mindfulness. They also reported that reminders Mindfulness and Thriving 19 (18.8%) and more meditation opportunities (e.g., pre-practice; 18.8%) may have increased their use of mindfulness between sessions. For more program evaluation data, see Table 6. Discussion The purpose of the study was to examine the efficacy of a mindfulness-based intervention in improving student-athlete thriving while also evaluating their self-reported experiences with the MBI. Due to lower than desired statistical power, findings will be discussed in order of most to least important based on effect size and novel findings. The intervention appears to have had the intended effect on some aspects of mindfulness (i.e., sport-specific awareness) and mindfulness processes (i.e., emotion regulation, decentering). Inexperienced meditators may overestimate their levels of trait mindfulness (Grossman, 2011), so the use of instruments to measure changes in mindfulness processes may further illuminate the impact of MBIs. The use of the AMPS to measure change and identify which processes may be most impacted within a sport-MBI provided novel insight into how and why athletes apply mindfulness. Participants AMPS scores corresponded with their open answers (“easier to manage big workloads”; “less anxious for school”), indicating the MBI helped increase their use of mindfulness skills (e.g., decentering, emotion regulation, self-regulation, self-compassion) to manage stressful moments, thereby reducing their suffering in their academic and performance environments. General psychology researchers have used the AMPS to measure mindfulness processes as a resilience factor and validation studies have shown moderate relationships between the AMPS and measures of well-being and mindfulness (Galvin et al., 2021; Li et al., 2016). The connections between mindfulness skills, their daily lives, and their well-being was discussed throughout the intervention and was the culminating focus of the final session. Mindfulness and Thriving 20 Sport Performance Satisfaction via Mindful Awareness and Self-Regulation Although the main hypothesis that the MBI would significantly increase thriving was not fully supported, several thriving-related findings were noteworthy. Consistent with previous literature, the MBI appears to have improved athlete subjective reports of sport performance with moderate effects (Goisbault et al., 2022). These improvements are noteworthy when considering contextual factors surrounding the intervention group. Improvements at T2 were the highest and this time point coincided with several stressors (i.e., coming off a travel meet with performance related pressure, entering final exams with academic-related pressure). Academic and sport stressors have been shown to inhibit athlete coping and negatively impact performance (Hamlin et al., 2019). Despite these stressors, participants reported improved performance as they were able to, as one athlete noted, “stay calm and collected when things get hard”. In their open-ended responses at the end of the program, athletes shared benefits such as self-regulation, poise, focus, awareness, and self-compassion that may have contributed to their self-reported improvements in sport performance. Self-regulation and poise have been linked with thriving as well as sport performance (Özcan and Vural, 2020; Perry et al., 2017; Brown et al., 2018). Noting the observed increases in mindful awareness and decentering (e.g., defusion, non-judgement), athletes may have applied these skills as methods of self-regulation. One of the meditations shared with the athletes, and commonly used by the coach for pre-practice mindfulness, focused on using the breath to ground themselves in the moment and then state a value-based intention. Athletes may have used this awareness of values to self-regulate and direct their focus and energy away from stressors and into the practice or performance. Consistent with elite basketball players from the Goisbault et al. (2022) study, being mindful of sport-specific cues appears to help improve focus, which Mindfulness and Thriving 21 indirectly helps improve performance by helping athletes invest more attention and energy in each practice session. Finally, practicing self-compassion may increase athlete resilience by helping them move beyond mistakes and refocus (Mosewich et al., 2013). Participants reported being able to “separate myself from my performance” and improving their “ability to not be so critical” which might have given them the freedom and poise to perform. Impact on Thriving: Optimism and Purpose for Sport and Beyond Although the results should be taken with caution, the exploratory analysis of changes in measures of comprehensive thriving indicated that a mindfulness intervention may increase levels of optimism. These findings support the emerging evidence that mindfulness may help reduce pessimism or increase optimism in sport (Scott-Hamilton and Schutte, 2016; Wang et al., 2021). Athletes in other studies have previously described having an optimistic outlook as a key characteristic of thriving (Brown et al., 2018). Furthermore, items related to optimism in the present study were not sport-specific but generalized to life experiences. Corresponding with these improvements, some participants reported positive changes in awareness and perspective (e.g., optimism, gratitude) in both sport and life such as the athlete that stated they learned to “take the good things even in dark days”. Student-athletes reporting these positive changes in both domains is encouraging for practitioners to note when considering mindfulness as a method to promote holistic well-being. These increases in optimism may be influenced by the intervention’s emphasis on self-compassion and empowerment (see Module 2, Table 1). It is possible that participants used self-compassion to dwell less on setbacks and reinterpret failure with a more mentally tough and optimistic perspective, which their increased AMPS emotion regulation scores would support. Mindfulness and Thriving 22 The exploratory analysis using the CIT also revealed a moderate intervention effect on participants’ sense of meaning and purpose. A key focus of the intervention was identifying and fostering commitment to values for both sport and life. Similar to previous MAC research, participants in the current study may have become more aware of, or connected and committed to, values and goals important to their sport (Goodman et al., 2014; Goisbault et al., 2022). Yet the exploratory findings reveal an improved sense of meaning and purpose in life beyond sport. The DII student-athletes in the sample may share common priorities with their generation (e.g. mental health support, holistic development), leading to an appreciation for the MBI’s emphasis on identifying values important to sport and life (Twenge et al., 2019; Gould et al., 2020). Segall (2021) implored mindfulness researchers to integrate eastern and western approaches to mindfulness; describing a similar pursuit of eudaimonia that is fostered when awareness and actions align with virtuous purposes. While some of the internal CIT scales seemed to be impacted by the MBI, relative to the control at follow-up, most of the CIT scales and other thriving measures (MTWS) were not. Interestingly, the means for all but one thriving scale moved in the hypothesized direction from T1 to T2, but most experienced drop-offs at T3. This pattern may be reflective of the time of season the swimmers in the intervention group were experiencing; while T1 and T2 were at moderate training load periods, T3 was during the heaviest training load of the season, when student-athletes were on a near empty campus during a holiday break. These contextual factors – the timing of in-season assessments – are important to note for future researchers who study thriving longitudinally with student-athletes experiencing heavy training loads. Internal factors like participant’s mood, engagement, and sense of vitality might have been impacted by the physical exhaustion that accompanies heavy training loads (Alfonso & Capdevila, 2022; Issurin, Mindfulness and Thriving 23 2019). Though the self-report instruments did not reveal significant findings, vitality-related improvements (i.e. energy, intentional action, flow) were reported by some participants at post intervention as they shared they were “less tired” and more able to “pinpoint daily goals”, “be intentional” and “get into the zone”. Ensuring less drop-off in mindfulness practice between T2 and T3 might have further supported their recovery and sense of vitality through this training period as mindfulness has been shown to aid stress-recovery balance (Holguín-Ramírez et al., 2020). While there were some self-reports of improved interpersonal skills, contrary to previous findings, specific effects on social well-being or team cohesion were not observed over time or self-reported in the current study (Piasecki et al., 2021). It is possible that athletes from a co acting sport like swimming may not prioritize social factors and team cohesion as much as athletes from co-dependent sports like soccer or volleyball (Worthen & Luiselli, 2016). The T3 contextual factors of experiencing the most intense period of training on an isolated campus may have also limited social interactions and inhibited external factors of thriving (i.e., belonging, community, trust, respect, autonomy, loneliness) that relate to team cohesion. Similarly, although the researcher witnessed anecdotal accounts of autonomy-supportive coaching between T1 and T2 (e.g., allowing the seniors to select events), athletes may have felt less autonomy from T2 to T3 due to having their holiday break involve intense training on an isolated campus. It is possible that the coach choosing the team to do the MBI, versus student-athletes signing up at their own volition, also inhibited autonomy, limited engagement, and acted as barrier to thriving at a comprehensive level. A lack of autonomy through controlling coach behaviors has been seen to prevent thriving for female netballers (Gucciardi et al., 2017). An extended MBI like Milligan et Mindfulness and Thriving 24 al.’s (2017) 20-week program may have further guided participants to make value-based decisions that promote self-autonomy and cohesion despite their circumstances. When considering the academic domain, although trending in the hypothesized directions, there were no significant changes in academic thriving or academic performance satisfaction. While reports of academic vitality did increase over time (ηp2 = .05) relative to the control group, the effect was not as large as has been seen in previous research using the same instrument (Augustus & Zizzi, 2022). Participants in the Augustus and Zizzi (2022) study watched the Headspace Guide to Meditation series (Grosso, 2021) in their health class which may have promoted transfer of skills to the academic setting. Nevertheless, in the current study program evaluation, approximately 1 in 4 responses about the daily life benefits of mindfulness highlighted academic performance. Some student-athletes reported improved focus, time management, and self-regulation of test anxiety which would correspond with previous academic research (Milligan et al., 2017; Phan et al., 2022). Practical Implications The actual practice of meditation was valued over learning mindfulness concepts as 38% of participants found the meditations to be the most engaging aspect of the MBI compared to 14% reporting psychoeducation. Facilitative factors like autonomy-supportive strategies (i.e., provided multiple options of meditations, discussion-based activities) were also appreciated by participants (34.5%) which supports research from a self-determination theory perspective (McHenry et al., 2020). Additional challenges reported included maintaining focus (35.3%), specifically for longer meditations and in the group format. Practitioners may weigh out the costs and benefits of dividing teams for MBIs to provide an environment more conducive to meditation. The use of engaging games (12%) as well as more sessions and interactions (9%) Mindfulness and Thriving 25 were suggested as possible solutions by current participants, highlighting the importance of building rapport. From an accountability standpoint, participants somewhat agreed that at-home practice was challenging (M = 2.88 out of 5) but some also reported the logs as being helpful in reminding them to practice. At-home practice adherence numbers were similar to Minkler (2023) and practice dropped-off between the end of the MBI (71% of desired dosage) and follow-up (56% of desired dosage). A central focus of the final session was to help student-athletes identify mindfulness resources and plan daily practices for after the MBI ended. Participants in the current study reported higher intentions of continuing to practice mindfulness in their sport (M = 4.34 out of 5) relative to participants in other sport-based MBIs (M = 3.89 out of 5; Worthen & Luiselli, 2016). A steeper drop-off in practice post-MBI may have been prevented by the emphasis on continued daily application. Athletes noted that reminders would have helped them increase consistency in at-home practice. Practitioners should consider, and future researchers may explore, the most acceptable and effective ways of using reminders via text, email, or physical cues in the athletes’ environment. Although the coach did implement some pre-practice meditations, athletes suggested more meditation opportunities and easier access would have increased their practice. While most (88%) of the participants reported no negative experiences while practicing mindfulness, 2 participants did state they became of aware of negative thoughts or memories. Although the research is limited regarding adverse or negative experiences with MBIs (Van Dam et al., 2018), this percentage of negative or adverse experiences (6% or 2 of 33 athletes) is consistent with estimates in previous literature (Farias et al., 2020), and reinforces the importance of having referral processes embedded in MBI protocols. While no one requested Mindfulness and Thriving 26 referral for mental health services, multiple participants responded that they already were supported by the university counselor. Even with adverse experiences being low, having a referral system in place when conducting MBIs ensures appropriate support for participants. Limitations and